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{{DISPLAYTITLE: Leonardo da Vinci Patterns}}
= Patterns in Art =
There are patterns almost everywhere you look, the world is filled with them, but what are patterns, and what makes them important in art? This is the topic we will explore in the research listed below.

== What Are Patterns? ==
Patterns have to do with repetition, arrangements, and sequences and can be seen in natural and urban environments. These beautiful patterns are found throughout the natural world, from atomic to the astronomical scale. A few of the patterns we see in nature are Symmetries (mirror & radial), Fractals (branching), Spirals, Flow, Foam, Waves, Tiling and even Cracks. But these could also be the mossy patches on tree bark, the row of windows on a skyscraper, the whorls of a seashell, to the swirls of paint on a Vincent van Gogh painting! However, patterns can also be in other disciplines like mathematics, engineering, architecture, literature, music, and different cultures from all over the world utilize patterns to decorate important objects like masks, textiles, sculptures, and even themselves through body art. What is common in the natural according and the created is that patterns are created through the arrangement of shapes, forms, or lines, which are sometimes known as the term “motifs”, and can be either deliberate or natural. In art, patterns can occur in sequential order or progression to create rhythm, movement, visual appeal, or emphasis.

== Types of Patterns ==
As mentioned above, the two main types of patterns occur naturally or artificially/deliberately, in other words as some sources describe: “natural” and “man-made”. But for both of them, these types of patterns can be arranged in symmetric, asymmetric, geometric, organic, regular, or irregular sequences. Furthermore, patterns can appear as tiles or tessellations, waves, spirals, crisscrosses, curls, loops, rows, lines, zigzags, florals, dots, blocks, and more! The repetitions can also come in varying shapes, styles, specific techniques, forms, shapes, sizes, and directions. For example, patterns can move outwards from a central area, they can move from left to right, up or down, and diagonally.

== The Principles of Art ==
It is important to note that “pattern” is one of the principles of art. Why, because a specific artist is recognizable by his/her/its “principles of design”. The most common principles include pattern, styles, specific techniques, repetition, rhythm, movement, variety, unity, harmony, balance, scale, proportion, and emphasis. The art principles create an organization for the elements of art and how they are utilized and applied to compose visual compositions.

'''Principles of Art and their Characteristics'''

Pattern = This is created through arrangements and sequences of signs or various “motifs” to add a variety of visual effects.

Repetition = This is related to patterns in art, and also determines how patterns are arranged.

Rhythm = This is when art elements are utilized and arranged in dynamic sequences that give the composition a feel of movement and directs the viewer’s eyes to a focal point or around the artwork.

Movement = This is also related to rhythm, but is more specific when the intention is to arrange art elements to create visual dynamism or convey a sense of speed.

Variety = This is about differences and avoiding monotony in a visual composition.

Unity = This refers to the whole composition and how all the art elements utilized relate to one another to appear visually holistic.

Harmony = This can apply to any of the art elements applied to be complementary to one another and thus visually “appealing”.

Balance = This can relate closely to, and not to be confused with, harmony and unity, but it is about the “weight” of all the art elements in a composition.

Scale = This is when two parts are placed next to the other to depict the visual differences in size.

Proportion = This is when parts of one object appear in different sizes.

Emphasis = This stresses certain significant aspects of a visual composition.

The elements of art, on the other hand, include seven main parts, namely, shape, form, line, texture, color, space, and value. These are also understood as the “building blocks” of a visual composition of a specific artist.

'''Art Elements and their Characteristics'''

Shape = There are several types of shapes, for example, circles or squares, and they are depicted on a flat surface.

Form = There are also several types of forms like spheres or cubes, but they have more depth and can also refer to a figurative form.

Line = This creates the outline of a form or structure and can create geometric shapes into more organic naturalistic forms.

Texture = This can be anything from smooth, coarse, shiny, prickly, or leathery in a visual composition, and can also be the actual paint on a canvas or the clay of sculpture.

Color = This is anything from primary, secondary, or tertiary colors, to saturation, temperature, or color schemes.

Space = This is what the “area” consists of in a visual composition or it can be the area around a sculptural object.

Value = This is best understood as visualizing a grayscale and how light or dark a hue appears.

== How Patterns Are Utilized in Art ==
Now that you understand what patterns are and their role as a principle of art, how can you utilize and apply pattern in art? Firstly, art patterns can be created with any of the art elements, and it all depends on the aim of the visual composition and what its purpose is. There are endless possibilities when it comes to creating art patterns. Below, we will look at how art patterns are created using art elements like color, shape, line, and so forth, providing examples from various artists throughout art history to illustrate how the types of pattern in art have been applied. It is also interesting to note that more than one art element can be utilized in a pattern, for example, the same shapes may be arranged in regular patterns, but be in irregular colors or vice versa. Different Types of Pattern in ArtA pattern by Paul Bürck, 1899; Paul Bürck, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns and Color ===
Colors can be utilized to create patterns, from monochromatic to multicolor. Furthermore, colors can be arranged in such a way that creates shapes like circles, squares, or rectangles. Colors can evoke different feelings and ideas, simply be decorative, or transcend the boundaries of the figurative. The Color Field Painting art movement within Abstract Expressionism is one example of how pattern in art is created by large areas of colors.
Color is often described as being the subject matter of the painting from this style, coupled with various shapes. Additionally, colors were also applied on “flat” surfaces that are usually also described as “large fields” of color. An example of how a pattern in artwork from the Color Field Painting art style is created includes Shoot (1964) by Kenneth Noland. Here, we see an inverted triangular shape consisting of four bands of color. Although there is an emphasis on shape here too, it works closely alongside color, and we see how colors equally create the geometric patterns.

=== Patterns in Texture ===
Texture in visual arts can either be implied/illusional or tactile, created by the physical medium itself like paint and the brushstrokes on a canvas. Brushstrokes can also create patterns on the canvas and become part of the composition. An example of how pattern in artwork is created through brushstrokes and texture can be found in the famous and loved The Starry Night (1889) painting by Vincent van Gogh.

The brushstrokes composing the sky, the landscape, and the looming cypress tree in the left foreground, all appear similar, creating a dynamic pattern. We can see the swirls of paint, created by Van Gogh’s utilization of brushstrokes, composing the sky, which gives it rhythm and movement. The brushstrokes move from one direction to the other and form circular arrangements around the moon and stars.

Example of Pattern in ArtThe Starry Night (1889) by Vincent van Gogh; Vincent van Gogh, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. These brushstroke lines are echoed in the sloping hills in the background, and further in the landscape below that shows houses and trees. The composition becomes harmonious because of the unity of patterns created from the brushstrokes.

Jackson Pollock from Abstract Expressionism is a famous example of how physical paint splattered and streaked onto a canvas can create patterns. He was known for his so-called “drip technique” and what is known as “Action Painting”. An example of pattern in art can be seen in Pollock’s Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) (1950) depicts drips of paint, which appear as streaks all intertwining, overlapping, and moving in every direction possible, however, the physical paint on the canvas creates a random and irregular patterned effect.

If we look at other modalities like sculpture, notably ceramics, patterns become ideal decorations. For example, we can look as far back as ancient Greek pottery, a vast world of its own depicting myriads of mythological narratives around the circumferences of vessels utilized for everyday activities. An example of this includes the François Vase (ca. 570 – 565 BCE), which was painted by the Athenian known as Kleitias and the potter was Ergotimos.

This vase was found by the archaeologist Alessandro François, after whom it was named. It depicts various mythological narratives, from gods to heroes, all arranged around the vase in what is known as “friezes”. Although the friezes depict different events occurring around the vase, there is still a pattern, albeit irregular, created.

Various Types of Pattern in ArtA drawing (c. 1895-1920) of the François Vase (c. 570-565 BCE); Unknown author Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns in Shapes and Forms ===
Shapes and forms are often utilized to create patterns and there are almost endless possibilities when it comes to how these can be arranged or sequenced. Shapes can be anything from squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, ovals, and more.

Forms can be anything from three-dimensional shapes like spheres or cubes, but also figurative forms. Examples of pattern in art that utilizes shape can be found in the artwork of Piet Mondrian, who was the pioneer of the art style called Neo-Plasticism, namely his Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) where he utilizes black outlines that then form squares and rectangles on the canvas with white in between and some colored areas.

Pattern in Artwork Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The composition appears almost as checkered patterns and the shapes are not all the same size thus creating irregular patterns. This was a common characteristic in Mondrian’s art, and we find his geometric and irregular patterning of shapes in numerous of his paintings. In one of Mondrian’s other paintings, Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943), we see more square and rectangular shapes with areas of color, including white in between.

However, this arrangement appears more irregular, which ironically creates a compositional unity due to the similarity in the patterning of shapes and colors.

Paintings With Art Patterns Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

An example where shapes are depicted as a more symmetrical pattern in artwork can be seen in the paintings by Mark Rothko, who was also a Color Field painter. His Untitled, Black on Gray (1969) depicts two joined rectangles, the top is black, and the bottom is gray. You might wonder how this has anything to do with a pattern, but it illustrates how shapes are repeated and placed in a symmetrical arrangement, even just two shapes.

In other words, there is more order to it and the differences are in the colors, which give it character, but also speak to a deeper meaning that Rothko intended, that being about “death”. The Symbolist painter Gustav Klimt is famous for his painting The Kiss (1907-1908), which depicts an assortment of shapes like rectangles, circles, and squares all arranged in patterns as decorative motifs for the subject matter. These are also evident in Klimt’s Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907), but it also has organic shapes like spirals and ovular eye shapes.

Types of Pattern in ArtLEFT: The Kiss (1907-1908) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons | RIGHT: Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Another artist worth mentioning who employed organic forms as patterns was William Morris, who was one of the pioneers of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England during the 1800s. He was a painter, textile artist and designer, poet, and writer, among many others. Morris was inspired by a Medieval art style and often created organic and natural designs that depicted beautiful decorative patterns.

For example, his wallpaper designs like the Larkspur Wallpaper (1874), Acanthus Wallpaper (1875), and Sunflower Wallpaper (1879); he reportedly created over 50 designs. Each design features floral and foliage-inspired motifs and appears natural in its repeated curvatures and curls. He is often quoted comparing patterns to a “fortress” and that “it is no stronger than its weakest point”.

Famous Art PatternsBlackthorn wallpaper (1892) by William Morris & Company; William Morris, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

From geometric shapes, fauna, and flora to figurative forms of famous pop stars, repeated en masse by Pop Artist Andy Warhol. The Marilyn Diptych (1962) is just one of many examples by Warhol of how he created patterns from pop culture. In this silkscreen painting, he depicted 50 iterations of Marilyn Monroe’s portrait all arranged in horizontal rows of five; the left section is in color and the right is in black and white.

However, there cannot be a mention of Andy Warhol without mentioning his famous Campbell’s Soup Cans (1962), which consists of 32 individual canvases with the image of a Campbell Soup can painted on it (all the cans are different flavors too). Warhol reportedly touched on mass media and the advertisement industry, of which repetition and replication are a large part.

=== Patterns in Lines ===
Bridget Riley from the Op Art movement became well-known for producing compositions that appeared like optical illusions through shapes, lines, and colors. For example, Riley’s oil on canvas Nataraja (1993) depicts bands of color, or as some describe it “stripes”, arranged in diagonal patterns, however, upon closer viewing, horizontal bands become evident and run from top to bottom of the canvas, thus also creating an optical effect.

Frank Stella’s artworks have been ascribed to the Minimalist art style as well as Hard-Edge painting. In his enamel on canvas painting The Marriage of Reason and Squalor, II (1959), which was part of his series of Black Paintings (1958-1960) the artist painted black strips or bands on the canvas with thin gaps in between, which is the canvas underneath that appear as white lines. The shape of the composition is described as an inverted “U” and the arrangement of the black and white lines creates a patterned effect. This composition is also more geometric and symmetrical, denoting an ordered arrangement of lines. Stella created several more from his series, also enamel on canvas, some include Jill (1959), which depicts lines in a diamond shape that starts small in the center and becomes bigger as it emanates outwards, and Zambezi (1959), which appears as a large “X” shape with open-ended triangular shapes moving outwards in each direction.

Another example of pattern in artwork with a focus on lines comes from Gene Davis, who was part of the Color Field Painting art style. He created artworks that depicted vertical lines in multi colors, for example, Hot Beat (1964), Red Witch (1966), and Dr. Peppercorn (1967).

=== Patterns in Space ===
Space as an element of art refers to the compositional space, which is described as the area that occurs “around” the main subject matter. Furthermore, space can be positive or negative, in other words, the positive space consists of the primary subject matter, or the area of focus in the composition, and negative space consists of the area around the focal point, which is sometimes “unused” but can be equally impactful in drawing attention.

Any pattern in artwork can be created through positive and negative space through the arrangement of an assortment of motifs, and some artists like M. C. Escher became famous for how he played with patterns and space, giving rise to numerous optical illusions known as his “tessellations”. Art Patterns Part of a tile tableau of Birds and Fishes by M. C. Escher from 1960 in the Dutch Tile Museum in Otterlo. The tableau was designed for his home at 59 Dirk Schäferstraat in Amsterdam; HenkvD, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Examples include Escher’s Day and Night (1937), which depicts an aerial view of a town and a flying flock of birds in the sky. The composition is split into two mirror images; however, the left side depicts the daytime with blackbirds, which is the positive space, and the right side, the nighttime, has white birds, which is the positive space. In Escher’s example of pattern in art, Bird Fish (1938), we see the patterned interplay between positive and negative space. Here there are rows of red/orange birds with white fish filling up the spaces around them, however, we can also say there are white fish with birds filling up the space around them – it all depends on how you look at it.

== Repetition, Repetition, Repetition ==
In this article, we explored patterns as one of the Principles of Art. The types of pattern in art can be anything from geometric and structured shapes or lines to flowy, curvy, and natural forms, all arranged and repeated to create various effects.

Patterns are part of a world of artful arrangements that can have hundreds of meanings, from serving as decorations, optical illusions, or merely art for art’s sake. However, patterns created by Andy Warhol, for example, touch on larger ideas of consumerism, and we could also go so far as to say that patterns create the means by which mass media can reproduce products or people. In other words, patterns allow for replication, one item placed next to the other, whether it is on a grocery shelf or art gallery wall. Patterns speak to the decorative as well as to the monotony of many.

While we have only outlined several prominent artists from all walks of life and art movements as examples of how patterns occur in art, we encourage you to look further, see between the lines, between the birds, around the splashes of paint, and swirls of brushstrokes and rows of images of Marilyn Monroe – patterns are everywhere, and as the adage goes, “repetition, repetition, repetition”.

== Frequently Asked Questions ==

'''What Are Patterns?'''

Pattern in art is one of the principles of art and are motifs (consisting of shapes, lines, and forms) that are repeated in arrangements, sequences, and groupings, whether ordered horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, or more irregular and random. Patterns can create a sense of rhythm or lead to a main focal point.

'''What Are the Types of Pattern in Art?'''

There are so-called man-made patterns and natural patterns, and they can be geometric or organic. Some patterns can consist of lines, curls, spirals, animal shapes, zigzags, dots, arabesques, circles, and squares, among many others.

'''What Are the Principles of Art?'''

The principles of art are so-called organizational principles, in other words, they determine how art elements (line, color, form, texture, space, shape, and value) will be applied in a visual composition. The art principles are namely, balance, harmony, unity, scale, proportion, emphasis, variety, pattern, repetition, movement, and rhythm.

= Golden Ratio =

== Da Vinci and the Divine Proportion in Art Composition ==

''July 7, 2014 by Gary Meisner''

Leonardo Da Vinci has long been associated with the golden ratio. This association was reinforced in popular culture in 2003 by Dan Brown’s best selling book “The Da Vinci Code.” The plot has pivotal clues involving the golden ratio and Fibonacci series. In 2006, the public awareness of the association grew when the book was turned into a movie starring veteran actor Tom Hanks. Da Vinci’s association with the golden ratio, known in his time as the Divine proportion, runs much longer and deeper.

=== Da Vinci’s illustrations appear in Pacioli’s book “The Divine Proportion” ===
Da Vinci created the illustrations for the book “De Divina Proportione” (The Divine Proportion) by Luca Pacioli. It was written in about 1497 and first published in 1509. Pacioli was a contemporary of Da Vinci’s, and the book contains dozens of beautiful illustrations of three-dimensional geometric solids and templates for script letters in calligraphy. The original manuscript can be viewed online at http://issuu.com/s.c.williams-library/docs/de_divina_proportione. As of this writing in 2014, no English translation is available.

In the book, Pacioli writes of mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in art and architecture. Some geometric solids, such as dodecahedrons and icosahedrons, have inherent golden ratios in their dimensions and spatial positions of their intersecting lines. Other examples of golden ratios in the illustrations include the one architectural illustration in the book and the one script letter (G) that is not divided horizontally at its midpoint.

[[File:1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d4/1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/63/2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/9/93/3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/22/4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|alt=|left]]

On the first page of De Divina Proportione, Pacioli states that his intent is to reveal to artists the secret of harmonic forms through the use of the Divine proportion, describing his writing as:

''A work necessary for all the clear-sighted and inquiring human minds, in which everyone who loves to study philosophy, perspective, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and other mathematical disciplines will find a very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching and will delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science.''

=== Golden ratios / Divine proportions appear in Renaissance art in paintings of religious importance ===
Da Vinci’s use of the Divine proportion is evident in some of his own works, even before his collaboration with Pacioli. The paintings I reviewed suggest that the use of the Divine proportion in paintings among Renaissance artists may have been more common in paintings of special religious significance.

It appears that Da Vinci applied Divine proportions in his rendition of “The Annunciation, painted in about 1472-1473. An exact determination is difficult with 100% certainty because various images available of this painting are cropped slightly differently. It appears to be the basis for the dimensions of the walls and entry way of the courtyard, as well other elements of the composition, as shown in the photos below. Other golden ratios can be found, but to avoid any perception that this is arbitrary those shown are based on very distinct features of the painting. Botticelli also used the golden ratio in several renditions he created of “The Annunciation” between 1485 and 1493. Michelangelo used it in “The Creation of Adam” in 1510.

[[File:1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios based on width of painting canvas, using Florence Museum image. Note alignment of vertical walls and courtyard entry.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d7/1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from left side to precise center of canvas, which aligns with the mountain peak. Note positioning of angle face and wings, as well as position of the one tree in the background that’s different from all the others.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/4/42/2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|frame|300 px|The Annunciation|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/f/f2/3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|frame|300 px|Variation on this image shows divine proportion position of the entry to the courtyard|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/5/5e/4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|frame|300 px|The ornamentation of the table is at the golden mean of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|frame|300 px|The peaks of the mountains in relation to the top of the canvas are in golden ratio proportion|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/ca/6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|center]]

=== Da Vinci’s “The Last Supper” has many clear examples of Divine proportions ===
Perhaps one of the best illustrations of its use is in “The Last Supper,” painted between 1494 and 1498. Various design and architectural features show very clear golden ratios. Some believe that even the positions of the disciples around the table were placed in divine proportions to Jesus.

[[File:1-The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci.png|frame|300 px|The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/7/7b/1-The_Last_Supper_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci.png|center]]

[[File:2-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Sheild-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Last Supper detail showing golden ratios|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/3/33/2-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Sheild-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Shield-Center-Markings.jpg|frame|300 px|Markings on the shield are golden ratios of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/62/3-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Shield-Center-Markings.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Sheild-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Small shield is a golden ratio of the width of its enclosure|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/c9/4-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Sheild-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Table-Window.jpg|frame|300 px|From table top to ceiling, Jesus is at the midpoint and the top of the windows is at the golden ratio|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/a/ab/5-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Table-Window.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Table-.jpg|frame|300 px|Center of table is a golden ratio to its sides|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d9/6-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Table-.jpg|center]]

=== Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa and the Golden Ratio ===
One of Da Vinci’s most famous paintings is “La Jaconde,” the Mona Lisa. This painting was begun in about 1503 and work on it continued for years. It has similar composition to “Christ as Savior of the World.” The application of the Divine proportion in this painting is the most subject to interpretation and debate. Unlike “The Last Supper” and “The Annunciation,” the Mona Lisa has few straight lines or architectural elements to use as references points in making a determination. It’s possible to find golden ratios in the Mona Lisa, but they’re not as definitive. If you do a Google search for Mona Lisa golden ratio you’ll also find some very creative interpretations of golden ratios in the Mona Lisa. Many of these are not easily supported as representing Da Vinci’s intent because their starting points, position and size are somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent.

There are, however, observations that can be made about the Mona Lisa. The image on the left below shows that golden ratios from the sides of the canvas. This approach reveals no golden ratios from the canvas edges that align with key elements of the composition. There may still be golden ratios here though. The width of her face is very close to a golden ratio of the width of the canvas. This is illustrated by the yellow rectangle of the same dimensions. In the image on the right, we see that her eye is rather precisely aligned with the center of the canvas. Golden ratio lines from the center of the painting to the sides of the canvas align nicely with the width of her hair. There may also be golden ratios in the vertical dimensions of the painting. As with the painting of Christ above, the most prominent elements of the composition are her head, the garment neck line and her arm. These also show golden ratios in their positioning. So, while this is not as definitive as the straight lines of architectural elements in other paintings, a reasonable case can be made that the Mona Lisa also embodies intentional golden ratio proportions in its composition. Given Da Vinci’s prior usage, it would not be unusual or unexpected for him to have applied it here as well.

[[File:1-Da-Vinci-Mona-Lisa-Golden-Ratio.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from sides of canvas|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/7/79/1-Da-Vinci-Mona-Lisa-Golden-Ratio.jpg|center]]

[[File:2-Da-Vinci-Mona-Lisa-Golden-Ratio-from-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from center of canvas|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/04/2-Da-Vinci-Mona-Lisa-Golden-Ratio-from-Center.jpg|center]]

=== Analysis of Da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man ===
Another of Da Vinci’s most famous works is that of the Vitruvian Man, created around 1490. The official title of the drawing is “Le proporzioni del corpo umano secondo Vitruvio,” or “The proportions of the human body according to Vitruvius.”

Wikipedia states,

''"The drawing is based on the correlations of ideal human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise De Architectura. Vitruvius described the human figure as being the principal source of proportion among the Classical orders of architecture. Vitruvius determined that the ideal body should be eight heads high. Leonardo’s drawing is traditionally named in honor of the architect. This image demonstrates the blend of art and science during the Renaissance and provides the perfect example of Leonardo’s deep understanding of proportion."''

The Wikipedia article describes how Vitruvio measured the entire human body in integer fractions of the height of a man. Examination of the Vitruvian man illustration shows that the guide lines drawn by Da Vinci on the body appear to be based on integer fractions of the height, which is also equal to its width. The illustration below shows the height/width divided into 4ths, 5ths, 8ths and 10ths. This aligns with the guide lines drawn horizontally at the collar bone, chest, genitals and knee. They align horizontally with the guide lines drawn at the wrist, elbow and shoulder.

Examination supports that Vitruvian Man was drawn to represent the fractional measures put forth by Vitruvius and is not based on the golden ratio. As discussed on the Great Pyramid page, however, irrational numbers like Phi can be closely approximated with integer fractions. So while Vitruvian Man may produce a very well proportioned human body, it seems unlikely that the human form would be based on a system of halfs, 4ths, 6ths, 7ths, 8ths and 10ths when we find constant rates of fractal expansion in the proportions of other living organisms. Other studies and approaches to measuring the human body express it just as well or better in golden ratio, which is better aligned to the growth relationships found in nature. See the Face, Body and Hand/Foot pages for illustrations.

= Animals in Paintings =

== Leonardo da Vinci saw in animals the ‘image of the world’ ==

''April 12, 2019, Arielle Saiber, Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Bowdoin College''

About six months ago I stopped eating meat. I was teaching a graduate course at UCLA that investigated how Italian Renaissance writers conveyed their concepts about the human through writing about the nonhuman – plants, animals, objects, angels, demons, gods and God. As weeks passed, I found myself becoming more and more attuned to the nonhuman entities all around me, more aware of their vibrant lives. Cutting flowers for a short-lived bouquet seemed wrong; chewing on animal flesh became flat out impossible.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the authors we were studying in the course. Out of the thousands of pages comprising his 25 documented codices, known collectively as his “Notebooks,” we read passages describing the natural world and its inhabitants, and some of his philosophical maxims, fables and riddles. In a striking passage that introduces his “Treatise on Water,” he wrote:

''“By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is composed of earth, water, air, and fire, his body resembles that of the earth; and as man has in him bones — the supports and framework of his flesh —, the world has its rocks — the supports of the earth; as man has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which likewise rises and falls … ”''

Unlike many thinkers of his time who anthropomorphized the Earth, Leonardo terramorphized man. But it was not just man that Leonardo saw as a Platonic microcosmic-world-in-miniature. Animals, he wrote, are “the image of the world.” They reflect the Earth, just as we do.

[[File:Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings. Leonardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ef/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_animals_hold_their_own_against_human_beings.png|center]]

=== Humans not superior to animal world ===
Leonardo never challenged the Christian belief that human beings were made in the image of God, nor the classical notion that man’s proportions and symmetries (albeit a white, middle-aged, able-bodied, European man) were beautiful and worthy of imitation in architecture and art. But he also never claimed other living beings were less beautiful, soulless, or lacked intelligence.

When comparing animals and humans – which he did often – animals often came out looking better. In one of his notes, Leonardo wrote, “Man has much power of discourse, which for the most part is vain and false; animals have but little, but it is useful and true, and a small truth is better than a great lie.” He often pointed out how much more powerful animals’ senses were, how much faster, stronger, more efficient and capable they were of performing remarkable feats, such as flight.

And animals were not nearly as “bestial” to one another as humans could be. “King of the animals – as thou hast described him – I should rather say king of the beasts,” he wrote. Leonardo lamented how human stomachs have become “a sepulcher for all animals” and how “our life is made by the death of others.”

=== Leonardo the vegetarian? ===
This passage, along with other writing about humans as killing machines and their esophagi as animal cemeteries, as well as a few comments by his contemporaries, have led many to believe that Leonardo was a vegetarian.

There is a 1515/6 letter by the Italian explorer Andrea Corsali to Giuliano de’ Medici that – in discussing how the Gujarati of India won’t eat anything with blood or allow hurt to come to any animate thing – says they are “like our Leonardo da Vinci.” Corsali, however, did not know Leonardo well, and the sentence is ambiguous; it could just mean that Leonardo never hurt animals or wanted to see them hurt.

Artist and biographer Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) noted that Leonardo was famed for buying caged birds and setting them free and Leonardo did, in fact, advocate for eating Nature’s abundant senplici (“simples”), a term which seems to imply plant-based recipes. He pondered why Nature had created a world in which animals ate each other, but concluded it was because life is compelled to reproduce and endure, and consequently, Nature needed a way to keep numbers down.

[[File:Leonardo was captivated by birds’ power of flight.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo was captivated by birds’ power of flight. Leonardo da Vinci/Wikimedia Commons.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/21/Leonardo_was_captivated_by_birds%E2%80%99_power_of_flight.png|center]]

Nowhere in his writing, however, did he speak of not eating meat. His grocery lists have meat on them, although it is possible he was purchasing it for members of his household: students, servants, guests, animals.

Whether he ate a totally meat-free diet or not is unclear, but his love for animals is unquestionable. He lived with animals on a farm as a child and they were ever-present in his studio – likely cats and dogs, insects, birds and reptiles (some alive, some deceased). Leonardo studied them, depicted them, wrote about them and built machines – even war machines – inspired by them.

[[File:Leonardo’s ‘Allegory of a Dog and an Eagle’.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s ‘Allegory of a Dog and an Eagle.’ Leonardo da Vinci/Royal Collection Trust.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ee/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_%E2%80%98Allegory_of_a_Dog_and_an_Eagle%E2%80%99.png|center]]

=== Literary animals ===
Leonardo’s literary writing – fables, riddles, aphorisms – is filled with animals. While they often serve as Aesopic moral stand-ins for humans, Leonardo also used them differently than other classical, medieval and Renaissance fabulists, contrasting them to humans, celebrating their strengths and wisdom and critiquing how humans treat them.

In his “Prophecy” riddles — which read like predictions of a horrendous apocalyptic future — one encounters legions of cruelty and pain. “I see children of thine given up to slavery to others … paid with the severest suffering, and spend[ing] their whole life benefiting those who ill treat them.” As a riddle, this is not what it seems. He’s writing not of humans, but rather, of donkeys, and how humans repay their services with unkindness and even violence. That said, in an empathic move, Leonardo was also linking humans to donkeys, and pointing to the ever-present fact that humans subject other humans to terrible fates.

In another riddle he noted the twistedness of horned animals being slaughtered by horn-handled knives, and the ostensible cannibalism of masters of estates “eating their own laborers” – oxen.

And in a particularly chilling prophecy, he described animals so full of evil that they were destroying all life on land and sea: He cries, “O Earth! Why dost thou not open and engulf [these animals] in the fissure of thy vast abyss and caverns, and no longer display in the sight of heaven such a cruel and horrible monster!” The monster, of course, is man.

Although many people assume Leonardo’s Vitruvian Man is an indication of an adherence to the commonly, but not universally, held Renaissance notion that man was the most perfect of beings and “the measure of all things,” his literary and artistic production seem to show that he saw animals as the true “image of the world.” While he included human beings in the group he called “animals,” it was not as preeminent entities, but as one of the world’s infinite, beautiful varieties.

[[File:Horses were among the animals Leonardo most frequently sketched.png|frame|300 px|Horses were among the animals Leonardo most frequently sketched. Leoardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/c8/Horses_were_among_the_animals_Leonardo_most_frequently_sketched.png|center]]

=== Animals on their own terms ===
Animals proliferate in Leonardo’s visual art. In his sketches we see horses run, trot, rear up on back legs, fall. Birds, bats and insects extend their wings. Cats stretch, wrestle and lounge. Lions roar. Bears, dogs, crabs, rhinoceroses quietly stand or walk. Beetles and ants bend their appendages.

His animals are anything but nature-morte; they are alive with motion and, seemingly, emotion. Within his paintings one can see, for example, a gentle, communicative lion in the unfinished “Saint Jerome in the Wilderness” (c. 1480); an affectionate ermine in “Lady with an Ermine” (1489-90); an erotic swan in the 1503-1507 sketches for a never-produced painting, “Leda and the Swan”); a lamb being hugged by the child Jesus in “The Virgin and the Child with Saint Anne” (1510). And, of course, horses: ceremonial and military (“The Adoration of the Magi” (1481), “The Battle of Anghiari” (preparatory studies, 1504-1505).

[[File:The Lady with an Ermine.png|frame|300 px|‘The Lady with an Ermine (Portrait of Cecilia Gallerani)’ Leonardo da Vinci/Wikimedia Commons.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/8/82/The_Lady_with_an_Ermine.png|center]]

All these animals are present in his writing, too, joined by an ark-load more: domesticated, wild, local, exotic, mythical (dragons!) and imaginary (sea-monsters!). Leonardo’s depictions of animals emerge not only as forces that teach us about ourselves and challenge our sense of human primacy, but as powerful, creative forces, on their own terms.

Leonardo chipped away at the walls between “us” and “them” by placing all life on a level field, all things as micro-reflections of a macro-whole. And as he envisioned in his terrifying visual and verbal depictions of catastrophic deluges and global disasters, we’re all in this together.

[[Category: Leonardo da Vinci]]

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= Patterns in Art =
There are patterns almost everywhere you look, the world is filled with them, but what are patterns, and what makes them important in art? This is the topic we will explore in the research listed below.

== What Are Patterns? ==
Patterns have to do with repetition, arrangements, and sequences and can be seen in natural and urban environments. These beautiful patterns are found throughout the natural world, from atomic to the astronomical scale. A few of the patterns we see in nature are Symmetries (mirror & radial), Fractals (branching), Spirals, Flow, Foam, Waves, Tiling and even Cracks. But these could also be the mossy patches on tree bark, the row of windows on a skyscraper, the whorls of a seashell, to the swirls of paint on a Vincent van Gogh painting! However, patterns can also be in other disciplines like mathematics, engineering, architecture, literature, music, and different cultures from all over the world utilize patterns to decorate important objects like masks, textiles, sculptures, and even themselves through body art. What is common in the natural according and the created is that patterns are created through the arrangement of shapes, forms, or lines, which are sometimes known as the term “motifs”, and can be either deliberate or natural. In art, patterns can occur in sequential order or progression to create rhythm, movement, visual appeal, or emphasis.

== Types of Patterns ==
As mentioned above, the two main types of patterns occur naturally or artificially/deliberately, in other words as some sources describe: “natural” and “man-made”. But for both of them, these types of patterns can be arranged in symmetric, asymmetric, geometric, organic, regular, or irregular sequences. Furthermore, patterns can appear as tiles or tessellations, waves, spirals, crisscrosses, curls, loops, rows, lines, zigzags, florals, dots, blocks, and more! The repetitions can also come in varying shapes, styles, specific techniques, forms, shapes, sizes, and directions. For example, patterns can move outwards from a central area, they can move from left to right, up or down, and diagonally.

== The Principles of Art ==
It is important to note that “pattern” is one of the principles of art. Why, because a specific artist is recognizable by his/her/its “principles of design”. The most common principles include pattern, styles, specific techniques, repetition, rhythm, movement, variety, unity, harmony, balance, scale, proportion, and emphasis. The art principles create an organization for the elements of art and how they are utilized and applied to compose visual compositions.

'''Principles of Art and their Characteristics'''

Pattern = This is created through arrangements and sequences of signs or various “motifs” to add a variety of visual effects.

Repetition = This is related to patterns in art, and also determines how patterns are arranged.

Rhythm = This is when art elements are utilized and arranged in dynamic sequences that give the composition a feel of movement and directs the viewer’s eyes to a focal point or around the artwork.

Movement = This is also related to rhythm, but is more specific when the intention is to arrange art elements to create visual dynamism or convey a sense of speed.

Variety = This is about differences and avoiding monotony in a visual composition.

Unity = This refers to the whole composition and how all the art elements utilized relate to one another to appear visually holistic.

Harmony = This can apply to any of the art elements applied to be complementary to one another and thus visually “appealing”.

Balance = This can relate closely to, and not to be confused with, harmony and unity, but it is about the “weight” of all the art elements in a composition.

Scale = This is when two parts are placed next to the other to depict the visual differences in size.

Proportion = This is when parts of one object appear in different sizes.

Emphasis = This stresses certain significant aspects of a visual composition.

The elements of art, on the other hand, include seven main parts, namely, shape, form, line, texture, color, space, and value. These are also understood as the “building blocks” of a visual composition of a specific artist.

'''Art Elements and their Characteristics'''

Shape = There are several types of shapes, for example, circles or squares, and they are depicted on a flat surface.

Form = There are also several types of forms like spheres or cubes, but they have more depth and can also refer to a figurative form.

Line = This creates the outline of a form or structure and can create geometric shapes into more organic naturalistic forms.

Texture = This can be anything from smooth, coarse, shiny, prickly, or leathery in a visual composition, and can also be the actual paint on a canvas or the clay of sculpture.

Color = This is anything from primary, secondary, or tertiary colors, to saturation, temperature, or color schemes.

Space = This is what the “area” consists of in a visual composition or it can be the area around a sculptural object.

Value = This is best understood as visualizing a grayscale and how light or dark a hue appears.

== How Patterns Are Utilized in Art ==
Now that you understand what patterns are and their role as a principle of art, how can you utilize and apply pattern in art? Firstly, art patterns can be created with any of the art elements, and it all depends on the aim of the visual composition and what its purpose is. There are endless possibilities when it comes to creating art patterns. Below, we will look at how art patterns are created using art elements like color, shape, line, and so forth, providing examples from various artists throughout art history to illustrate how the types of pattern in art have been applied. It is also interesting to note that more than one art element can be utilized in a pattern, for example, the same shapes may be arranged in regular patterns, but be in irregular colors or vice versa. Different Types of Pattern in ArtA pattern by Paul Bürck, 1899; Paul Bürck, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns and Color ===
Colors can be utilized to create patterns, from monochromatic to multicolor. Furthermore, colors can be arranged in such a way that creates shapes like circles, squares, or rectangles. Colors can evoke different feelings and ideas, simply be decorative, or transcend the boundaries of the figurative. The Color Field Painting art movement within Abstract Expressionism is one example of how pattern in art is created by large areas of colors.
Color is often described as being the subject matter of the painting from this style, coupled with various shapes. Additionally, colors were also applied on “flat” surfaces that are usually also described as “large fields” of color. An example of how a pattern in artwork from the Color Field Painting art style is created includes Shoot (1964) by Kenneth Noland. Here, we see an inverted triangular shape consisting of four bands of color. Although there is an emphasis on shape here too, it works closely alongside color, and we see how colors equally create the geometric patterns.

=== Patterns in Texture ===
Texture in visual arts can either be implied/illusional or tactile, created by the physical medium itself like paint and the brushstrokes on a canvas. Brushstrokes can also create patterns on the canvas and become part of the composition. An example of how pattern in artwork is created through brushstrokes and texture can be found in the famous and loved The Starry Night (1889) painting by Vincent van Gogh.

The brushstrokes composing the sky, the landscape, and the looming cypress tree in the left foreground, all appear similar, creating a dynamic pattern. We can see the swirls of paint, created by Van Gogh’s utilization of brushstrokes, composing the sky, which gives it rhythm and movement. The brushstrokes move from one direction to the other and form circular arrangements around the moon and stars.

Example of Pattern in ArtThe Starry Night (1889) by Vincent van Gogh; Vincent van Gogh, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. These brushstroke lines are echoed in the sloping hills in the background, and further in the landscape below that shows houses and trees. The composition becomes harmonious because of the unity of patterns created from the brushstrokes.

Jackson Pollock from Abstract Expressionism is a famous example of how physical paint splattered and streaked onto a canvas can create patterns. He was known for his so-called “drip technique” and what is known as “Action Painting”. An example of pattern in art can be seen in Pollock’s Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) (1950) depicts drips of paint, which appear as streaks all intertwining, overlapping, and moving in every direction possible, however, the physical paint on the canvas creates a random and irregular patterned effect.

If we look at other modalities like sculpture, notably ceramics, patterns become ideal decorations. For example, we can look as far back as ancient Greek pottery, a vast world of its own depicting myriads of mythological narratives around the circumferences of vessels utilized for everyday activities. An example of this includes the François Vase (ca. 570 – 565 BCE), which was painted by the Athenian known as Kleitias and the potter was Ergotimos.

This vase was found by the archaeologist Alessandro François, after whom it was named. It depicts various mythological narratives, from gods to heroes, all arranged around the vase in what is known as “friezes”. Although the friezes depict different events occurring around the vase, there is still a pattern, albeit irregular, created.

Various Types of Pattern in ArtA drawing (c. 1895-1920) of the François Vase (c. 570-565 BCE); Unknown author Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns in Shapes and Forms ===
Shapes and forms are often utilized to create patterns and there are almost endless possibilities when it comes to how these can be arranged or sequenced. Shapes can be anything from squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, ovals, and more.

Forms can be anything from three-dimensional shapes like spheres or cubes, but also figurative forms. Examples of pattern in art that utilizes shape can be found in the artwork of Piet Mondrian, who was the pioneer of the art style called Neo-Plasticism, namely his Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) where he utilizes black outlines that then form squares and rectangles on the canvas with white in between and some colored areas.

Pattern in Artwork Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The composition appears almost as checkered patterns and the shapes are not all the same size thus creating irregular patterns. This was a common characteristic in Mondrian’s art, and we find his geometric and irregular patterning of shapes in numerous of his paintings. In one of Mondrian’s other paintings, Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943), we see more square and rectangular shapes with areas of color, including white in between.

However, this arrangement appears more irregular, which ironically creates a compositional unity due to the similarity in the patterning of shapes and colors.

Paintings With Art Patterns Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

An example where shapes are depicted as a more symmetrical pattern in artwork can be seen in the paintings by Mark Rothko, who was also a Color Field painter. His Untitled, Black on Gray (1969) depicts two joined rectangles, the top is black, and the bottom is gray. You might wonder how this has anything to do with a pattern, but it illustrates how shapes are repeated and placed in a symmetrical arrangement, even just two shapes.

In other words, there is more order to it and the differences are in the colors, which give it character, but also speak to a deeper meaning that Rothko intended, that being about “death”. The Symbolist painter Gustav Klimt is famous for his painting The Kiss (1907-1908), which depicts an assortment of shapes like rectangles, circles, and squares all arranged in patterns as decorative motifs for the subject matter. These are also evident in Klimt’s Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907), but it also has organic shapes like spirals and ovular eye shapes.

Types of Pattern in ArtLEFT: The Kiss (1907-1908) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons | RIGHT: Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Another artist worth mentioning who employed organic forms as patterns was William Morris, who was one of the pioneers of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England during the 1800s. He was a painter, textile artist and designer, poet, and writer, among many others. Morris was inspired by a Medieval art style and often created organic and natural designs that depicted beautiful decorative patterns.

For example, his wallpaper designs like the Larkspur Wallpaper (1874), Acanthus Wallpaper (1875), and Sunflower Wallpaper (1879); he reportedly created over 50 designs. Each design features floral and foliage-inspired motifs and appears natural in its repeated curvatures and curls. He is often quoted comparing patterns to a “fortress” and that “it is no stronger than its weakest point”.

Famous Art PatternsBlackthorn wallpaper (1892) by William Morris & Company; William Morris, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

From geometric shapes, fauna, and flora to figurative forms of famous pop stars, repeated en masse by Pop Artist Andy Warhol. The Marilyn Diptych (1962) is just one of many examples by Warhol of how he created patterns from pop culture. In this silkscreen painting, he depicted 50 iterations of Marilyn Monroe’s portrait all arranged in horizontal rows of five; the left section is in color and the right is in black and white.

However, there cannot be a mention of Andy Warhol without mentioning his famous Campbell’s Soup Cans (1962), which consists of 32 individual canvases with the image of a Campbell Soup can painted on it (all the cans are different flavors too). Warhol reportedly touched on mass media and the advertisement industry, of which repetition and replication are a large part.

=== Patterns in Lines ===
Bridget Riley from the Op Art movement became well-known for producing compositions that appeared like optical illusions through shapes, lines, and colors. For example, Riley’s oil on canvas Nataraja (1993) depicts bands of color, or as some describe it “stripes”, arranged in diagonal patterns, however, upon closer viewing, horizontal bands become evident and run from top to bottom of the canvas, thus also creating an optical effect.

Frank Stella’s artworks have been ascribed to the Minimalist art style as well as Hard-Edge painting. In his enamel on canvas painting The Marriage of Reason and Squalor, II (1959), which was part of his series of Black Paintings (1958-1960) the artist painted black strips or bands on the canvas with thin gaps in between, which is the canvas underneath that appear as white lines. The shape of the composition is described as an inverted “U” and the arrangement of the black and white lines creates a patterned effect. This composition is also more geometric and symmetrical, denoting an ordered arrangement of lines. Stella created several more from his series, also enamel on canvas, some include Jill (1959), which depicts lines in a diamond shape that starts small in the center and becomes bigger as it emanates outwards, and Zambezi (1959), which appears as a large “X” shape with open-ended triangular shapes moving outwards in each direction.

Another example of pattern in artwork with a focus on lines comes from Gene Davis, who was part of the Color Field Painting art style. He created artworks that depicted vertical lines in multi colors, for example, Hot Beat (1964), Red Witch (1966), and Dr. Peppercorn (1967).

=== Patterns in Space ===
Space as an element of art refers to the compositional space, which is described as the area that occurs “around” the main subject matter. Furthermore, space can be positive or negative, in other words, the positive space consists of the primary subject matter, or the area of focus in the composition, and negative space consists of the area around the focal point, which is sometimes “unused” but can be equally impactful in drawing attention.

Any pattern in artwork can be created through positive and negative space through the arrangement of an assortment of motifs, and some artists like M. C. Escher became famous for how he played with patterns and space, giving rise to numerous optical illusions known as his “tessellations”. Art Patterns Part of a tile tableau of Birds and Fishes by M. C. Escher from 1960 in the Dutch Tile Museum in Otterlo. The tableau was designed for his home at 59 Dirk Schäferstraat in Amsterdam; HenkvD, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Examples include Escher’s Day and Night (1937), which depicts an aerial view of a town and a flying flock of birds in the sky. The composition is split into two mirror images; however, the left side depicts the daytime with blackbirds, which is the positive space, and the right side, the nighttime, has white birds, which is the positive space. In Escher’s example of pattern in art, Bird Fish (1938), we see the patterned interplay between positive and negative space. Here there are rows of red/orange birds with white fish filling up the spaces around them, however, we can also say there are white fish with birds filling up the space around them – it all depends on how you look at it.

== Repetition, Repetition, Repetition ==
In this article, we explored patterns as one of the Principles of Art. The types of pattern in art can be anything from geometric and structured shapes or lines to flowy, curvy, and natural forms, all arranged and repeated to create various effects.

Patterns are part of a world of artful arrangements that can have hundreds of meanings, from serving as decorations, optical illusions, or merely art for art’s sake. However, patterns created by Andy Warhol, for example, touch on larger ideas of consumerism, and we could also go so far as to say that patterns create the means by which mass media can reproduce products or people. In other words, patterns allow for replication, one item placed next to the other, whether it is on a grocery shelf or art gallery wall. Patterns speak to the decorative as well as to the monotony of many.

While we have only outlined several prominent artists from all walks of life and art movements as examples of how patterns occur in art, we encourage you to look further, see between the lines, between the birds, around the splashes of paint, and swirls of brushstrokes and rows of images of Marilyn Monroe – patterns are everywhere, and as the adage goes, “repetition, repetition, repetition”.

== Frequently Asked Questions ==

'''What Are Patterns?'''

Pattern in art is one of the principles of art and are motifs (consisting of shapes, lines, and forms) that are repeated in arrangements, sequences, and groupings, whether ordered horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, or more irregular and random. Patterns can create a sense of rhythm or lead to a main focal point.

'''What Are the Types of Pattern in Art?'''

There are so-called man-made patterns and natural patterns, and they can be geometric or organic. Some patterns can consist of lines, curls, spirals, animal shapes, zigzags, dots, arabesques, circles, and squares, among many others.

'''What Are the Principles of Art?'''

The principles of art are so-called organizational principles, in other words, they determine how art elements (line, color, form, texture, space, shape, and value) will be applied in a visual composition. The art principles are namely, balance, harmony, unity, scale, proportion, emphasis, variety, pattern, repetition, movement, and rhythm.

= Golden Ratio =

== Da Vinci and the Divine Proportion in Art Composition ==

''July 7, 2014 by Gary Meisner''

Leonardo Da Vinci has long been associated with the golden ratio. This association was reinforced in popular culture in 2003 by Dan Brown’s best selling book “The Da Vinci Code.” The plot has pivotal clues involving the golden ratio and Fibonacci series. In 2006, the public awareness of the association grew when the book was turned into a movie starring veteran actor Tom Hanks. Da Vinci’s association with the golden ratio, known in his time as the Divine proportion, runs much longer and deeper.

=== Da Vinci’s illustrations appear in Pacioli’s book “The Divine Proportion” ===
Da Vinci created the illustrations for the book “De Divina Proportione” (The Divine Proportion) by Luca Pacioli. It was written in about 1497 and first published in 1509. Pacioli was a contemporary of Da Vinci’s, and the book contains dozens of beautiful illustrations of three-dimensional geometric solids and templates for script letters in calligraphy. The original manuscript can be viewed online at http://issuu.com/s.c.williams-library/docs/de_divina_proportione. As of this writing in 2014, no English translation is available.

In the book, Pacioli writes of mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in art and architecture. Some geometric solids, such as dodecahedrons and icosahedrons, have inherent golden ratios in their dimensions and spatial positions of their intersecting lines. Other examples of golden ratios in the illustrations include the one architectural illustration in the book and the one script letter (G) that is not divided horizontally at its midpoint.

[[File:1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d4/1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/63/2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/9/93/3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/22/4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|alt=|left]]

On the first page of De Divina Proportione, Pacioli states that his intent is to reveal to artists the secret of harmonic forms through the use of the Divine proportion, describing his writing as:

''A work necessary for all the clear-sighted and inquiring human minds, in which everyone who loves to study philosophy, perspective, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and other mathematical disciplines will find a very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching and will delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science.''

=== Golden ratios / Divine proportions appear in Renaissance art in paintings of religious importance ===
Da Vinci’s use of the Divine proportion is evident in some of his own works, even before his collaboration with Pacioli. The paintings I reviewed suggest that the use of the Divine proportion in paintings among Renaissance artists may have been more common in paintings of special religious significance.

It appears that Da Vinci applied Divine proportions in his rendition of “The Annunciation, painted in about 1472-1473. An exact determination is difficult with 100% certainty because various images available of this painting are cropped slightly differently. It appears to be the basis for the dimensions of the walls and entry way of the courtyard, as well other elements of the composition, as shown in the photos below. Other golden ratios can be found, but to avoid any perception that this is arbitrary those shown are based on very distinct features of the painting. Botticelli also used the golden ratio in several renditions he created of “The Annunciation” between 1485 and 1493. Michelangelo used it in “The Creation of Adam” in 1510.

[[File:1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios based on width of painting canvas, using Florence Museum image. Note alignment of vertical walls and courtyard entry.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d7/1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from left side to precise center of canvas, which aligns with the mountain peak. Note positioning of angle face and wings, as well as position of the one tree in the background that’s different from all the others.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/4/42/2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|frame|300 px|The Annunciation|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/f/f2/3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|frame|300 px|Variation on this image shows divine proportion position of the entry to the courtyard|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/5/5e/4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|frame|300 px|The ornamentation of the table is at the golden mean of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|frame|300 px|The peaks of the mountains in relation to the top of the canvas are in golden ratio proportion|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/ca/6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|center]]

=== Da Vinci’s “The Last Supper” has many clear examples of Divine proportions ===
Perhaps one of the best illustrations of its use is in “The Last Supper,” painted between 1494 and 1498. Various design and architectural features show very clear golden ratios. Some believe that even the positions of the disciples around the table were placed in divine proportions to Jesus.

[[File:1-The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci.png|frame|300 px|The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/7/7b/1-The_Last_Supper_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci.png|center]]

[[File:2-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Sheild-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Last Supper detail showing golden ratios|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/3/33/2-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Sheild-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Shield-Center-Markings.jpg|frame|300 px|Markings on the shield are golden ratios of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/62/3-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Shield-Center-Markings.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Sheild-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Small shield is a golden ratio of the width of its enclosure|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/c9/4-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Sheild-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Table-Window.jpg|frame|300 px|From table top to ceiling, Jesus is at the midpoint and the top of the windows is at the golden ratio|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/a/ab/5-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Table-Window.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Table-.jpg|frame|300 px|Center of table is a golden ratio to its sides|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d9/6-Da-Vinci-The-Last-Supper-Table-.jpg|center]]

= Animals in Paintings =

== Leonardo da Vinci saw in animals the ‘image of the world’ ==

''April 12, 2019, Arielle Saiber, Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Bowdoin College''

About six months ago I stopped eating meat. I was teaching a graduate course at UCLA that investigated how Italian Renaissance writers conveyed their concepts about the human through writing about the nonhuman – plants, animals, objects, angels, demons, gods and God. As weeks passed, I found myself becoming more and more attuned to the nonhuman entities all around me, more aware of their vibrant lives. Cutting flowers for a short-lived bouquet seemed wrong; chewing on animal flesh became flat out impossible.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the authors we were studying in the course. Out of the thousands of pages comprising his 25 documented codices, known collectively as his “Notebooks,” we read passages describing the natural world and its inhabitants, and some of his philosophical maxims, fables and riddles. In a striking passage that introduces his “Treatise on Water,” he wrote:

''“By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is composed of earth, water, air, and fire, his body resembles that of the earth; and as man has in him bones — the supports and framework of his flesh —, the world has its rocks — the supports of the earth; as man has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which likewise rises and falls … ”''

Unlike many thinkers of his time who anthropomorphized the Earth, Leonardo terramorphized man. But it was not just man that Leonardo saw as a Platonic microcosmic-world-in-miniature. Animals, he wrote, are “the image of the world.” They reflect the Earth, just as we do.

[[File:Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings. Leonardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ef/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_animals_hold_their_own_against_human_beings.png|center]]

=== Humans not superior to animal world ===
Leonardo never challenged the Christian belief that human beings were made in the image of God, nor the classical notion that man’s proportions and symmetries (albeit a white, middle-aged, able-bodied, European man) were beautiful and worthy of imitation in architecture and art. But he also never claimed other living beings were less beautiful, soulless, or lacked intelligence.

When comparing animals and humans – which he did often – animals often came out looking better. In one of his notes, Leonardo wrote, “Man has much power of discourse, which for the most part is vain and false; animals have but little, but it is useful and true, and a small truth is better than a great lie.” He often pointed out how much more powerful animals’ senses were, how much faster, stronger, more efficient and capable they were of performing remarkable feats, such as flight.

And animals were not nearly as “bestial” to one another as humans could be. “King of the animals – as thou hast described him – I should rather say king of the beasts,” he wrote. Leonardo lamented how human stomachs have become “a sepulcher for all animals” and how “our life is made by the death of others.”

=== Leonardo the vegetarian? ===
This passage, along with other writing about humans as killing machines and their esophagi as animal cemeteries, as well as a few comments by his contemporaries, have led many to believe that Leonardo was a vegetarian.

There is a 1515/6 letter by the Italian explorer Andrea Corsali to Giuliano de’ Medici that – in discussing how the Gujarati of India won’t eat anything with blood or allow hurt to come to any animate thing – says they are “like our Leonardo da Vinci.” Corsali, however, did not know Leonardo well, and the sentence is ambiguous; it could just mean that Leonardo never hurt animals or wanted to see them hurt.

Artist and biographer Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) noted that Leonardo was famed for buying caged birds and setting them free and Leonardo did, in fact, advocate for eating Nature’s abundant senplici (“simples”), a term which seems to imply plant-based recipes. He pondered why Nature had created a world in which animals ate each other, but concluded it was because life is compelled to reproduce and endure, and consequently, Nature needed a way to keep numbers down.

[[File:Leonardo was captivated by birds’ power of flight.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo was captivated by birds’ power of flight. Leonardo da Vinci/Wikimedia Commons.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/21/Leonardo_was_captivated_by_birds%E2%80%99_power_of_flight.png|center]]

Nowhere in his writing, however, did he speak of not eating meat. His grocery lists have meat on them, although it is possible he was purchasing it for members of his household: students, servants, guests, animals.

Whether he ate a totally meat-free diet or not is unclear, but his love for animals is unquestionable. He lived with animals on a farm as a child and they were ever-present in his studio – likely cats and dogs, insects, birds and reptiles (some alive, some deceased). Leonardo studied them, depicted them, wrote about them and built machines – even war machines – inspired by them.

[[File:Leonardo’s ‘Allegory of a Dog and an Eagle’.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s ‘Allegory of a Dog and an Eagle.’ Leonardo da Vinci/Royal Collection Trust.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ee/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_%E2%80%98Allegory_of_a_Dog_and_an_Eagle%E2%80%99.png|center]]

=== Literary animals ===
Leonardo’s literary writing – fables, riddles, aphorisms – is filled with animals. While they often serve as Aesopic moral stand-ins for humans, Leonardo also used them differently than other classical, medieval and Renaissance fabulists, contrasting them to humans, celebrating their strengths and wisdom and critiquing how humans treat them.

In his “Prophecy” riddles — which read like predictions of a horrendous apocalyptic future — one encounters legions of cruelty and pain. “I see children of thine given up to slavery to others … paid with the severest suffering, and spend[ing] their whole life benefiting those who ill treat them.” As a riddle, this is not what it seems. He’s writing not of humans, but rather, of donkeys, and how humans repay their services with unkindness and even violence. That said, in an empathic move, Leonardo was also linking humans to donkeys, and pointing to the ever-present fact that humans subject other humans to terrible fates.

In another riddle he noted the twistedness of horned animals being slaughtered by horn-handled knives, and the ostensible cannibalism of masters of estates “eating their own laborers” – oxen.

And in a particularly chilling prophecy, he described animals so full of evil that they were destroying all life on land and sea: He cries, “O Earth! Why dost thou not open and engulf [these animals] in the fissure of thy vast abyss and caverns, and no longer display in the sight of heaven such a cruel and horrible monster!” The monster, of course, is man.

Although many people assume Leonardo’s Vitruvian Man is an indication of an adherence to the commonly, but not universally, held Renaissance notion that man was the most perfect of beings and “the measure of all things,” his literary and artistic production seem to show that he saw animals as the true “image of the world.” While he included human beings in the group he called “animals,” it was not as preeminent entities, but as one of the world’s infinite, beautiful varieties.

[[File:Horses were among the animals Leonardo most frequently sketched.png|frame|300 px|Horses were among the animals Leonardo most frequently sketched. Leoardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/c8/Horses_were_among_the_animals_Leonardo_most_frequently_sketched.png|center]]

=== Animals on their own terms ===
Animals proliferate in Leonardo’s visual art. In his sketches we see horses run, trot, rear up on back legs, fall. Birds, bats and insects extend their wings. Cats stretch, wrestle and lounge. Lions roar. Bears, dogs, crabs, rhinoceroses quietly stand or walk. Beetles and ants bend their appendages.

His animals are anything but nature-morte; they are alive with motion and, seemingly, emotion. Within his paintings one can see, for example, a gentle, communicative lion in the unfinished “Saint Jerome in the Wilderness” (c. 1480); an affectionate ermine in “Lady with an Ermine” (1489-90); an erotic swan in the 1503-1507 sketches for a never-produced painting, “Leda and the Swan”); a lamb being hugged by the child Jesus in “The Virgin and the Child with Saint Anne” (1510). And, of course, horses: ceremonial and military (“The Adoration of the Magi” (1481), “The Battle of Anghiari” (preparatory studies, 1504-1505).

[[File:The Lady with an Ermine.png|frame|300 px|‘The Lady with an Ermine (Portrait of Cecilia Gallerani)’ Leonardo da Vinci/Wikimedia Commons.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/8/82/The_Lady_with_an_Ermine.png|center]]

All these animals are present in his writing, too, joined by an ark-load more: domesticated, wild, local, exotic, mythical (dragons!) and imaginary (sea-monsters!). Leonardo’s depictions of animals emerge not only as forces that teach us about ourselves and challenge our sense of human primacy, but as powerful, creative forces, on their own terms.

Leonardo chipped away at the walls between “us” and “them” by placing all life on a level field, all things as micro-reflections of a macro-whole. And as he envisioned in his terrifying visual and verbal depictions of catastrophic deluges and global disasters, we’re all in this together.

[[Category: Leonardo da Vinci]]

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{{DISPLAYTITLE: Leonardo da Vinci Patterns}}
= Patterns in Art =
There are patterns almost everywhere you look, the world is filled with them, but what are patterns, and what makes them important in art? This is the topic we will explore in the research listed below.

== What Are Patterns? ==
Patterns have to do with repetition, arrangements, and sequences and can be seen in natural and urban environments. These beautiful patterns are found throughout the natural world, from atomic to the astronomical scale. A few of the patterns we see in nature are Symmetries (mirror & radial), Fractals (branching), Spirals, Flow, Foam, Waves, Tiling and even Cracks. But these could also be the mossy patches on tree bark, the row of windows on a skyscraper, the whorls of a seashell, to the swirls of paint on a Vincent van Gogh painting! However, patterns can also be in other disciplines like mathematics, engineering, architecture, literature, music, and different cultures from all over the world utilize patterns to decorate important objects like masks, textiles, sculptures, and even themselves through body art. What is common in the natural according and the created is that patterns are created through the arrangement of shapes, forms, or lines, which are sometimes known as the term “motifs”, and can be either deliberate or natural. In art, patterns can occur in sequential order or progression to create rhythm, movement, visual appeal, or emphasis.

== Types of Patterns ==
As mentioned above, the two main types of patterns occur naturally or artificially/deliberately, in other words as some sources describe: “natural” and “man-made”. But for both of them, these types of patterns can be arranged in symmetric, asymmetric, geometric, organic, regular, or irregular sequences. Furthermore, patterns can appear as tiles or tessellations, waves, spirals, crisscrosses, curls, loops, rows, lines, zigzags, florals, dots, blocks, and more! The repetitions can also come in varying shapes, styles, specific techniques, forms, shapes, sizes, and directions. For example, patterns can move outwards from a central area, they can move from left to right, up or down, and diagonally.

== The Principles of Art ==
It is important to note that “pattern” is one of the principles of art. Why, because a specific artist is recognizable by his/her/its “principles of design”. The most common principles include pattern, styles, specific techniques, repetition, rhythm, movement, variety, unity, harmony, balance, scale, proportion, and emphasis. The art principles create an organization for the elements of art and how they are utilized and applied to compose visual compositions.

'''Principles of Art and their Characteristics'''

Pattern = This is created through arrangements and sequences of signs or various “motifs” to add a variety of visual effects.

Repetition = This is related to patterns in art, and also determines how patterns are arranged.

Rhythm = This is when art elements are utilized and arranged in dynamic sequences that give the composition a feel of movement and directs the viewer’s eyes to a focal point or around the artwork.

Movement = This is also related to rhythm, but is more specific when the intention is to arrange art elements to create visual dynamism or convey a sense of speed.

Variety = This is about differences and avoiding monotony in a visual composition.

Unity = This refers to the whole composition and how all the art elements utilized relate to one another to appear visually holistic.

Harmony = This can apply to any of the art elements applied to be complementary to one another and thus visually “appealing”.

Balance = This can relate closely to, and not to be confused with, harmony and unity, but it is about the “weight” of all the art elements in a composition.

Scale = This is when two parts are placed next to the other to depict the visual differences in size.

Proportion = This is when parts of one object appear in different sizes.

Emphasis = This stresses certain significant aspects of a visual composition.

The elements of art, on the other hand, include seven main parts, namely, shape, form, line, texture, color, space, and value. These are also understood as the “building blocks” of a visual composition of a specific artist.

'''Art Elements and their Characteristics'''

Shape = There are several types of shapes, for example, circles or squares, and they are depicted on a flat surface.

Form = There are also several types of forms like spheres or cubes, but they have more depth and can also refer to a figurative form.

Line = This creates the outline of a form or structure and can create geometric shapes into more organic naturalistic forms.

Texture = This can be anything from smooth, coarse, shiny, prickly, or leathery in a visual composition, and can also be the actual paint on a canvas or the clay of sculpture.

Color = This is anything from primary, secondary, or tertiary colors, to saturation, temperature, or color schemes.

Space = This is what the “area” consists of in a visual composition or it can be the area around a sculptural object.

Value = This is best understood as visualizing a grayscale and how light or dark a hue appears.

== How Patterns Are Utilized in Art ==
Now that you understand what patterns are and their role as a principle of art, how can you utilize and apply pattern in art? Firstly, art patterns can be created with any of the art elements, and it all depends on the aim of the visual composition and what its purpose is. There are endless possibilities when it comes to creating art patterns. Below, we will look at how art patterns are created using art elements like color, shape, line, and so forth, providing examples from various artists throughout art history to illustrate how the types of pattern in art have been applied. It is also interesting to note that more than one art element can be utilized in a pattern, for example, the same shapes may be arranged in regular patterns, but be in irregular colors or vice versa. Different Types of Pattern in ArtA pattern by Paul Bürck, 1899; Paul Bürck, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns and Color ===
Colors can be utilized to create patterns, from monochromatic to multicolor. Furthermore, colors can be arranged in such a way that creates shapes like circles, squares, or rectangles. Colors can evoke different feelings and ideas, simply be decorative, or transcend the boundaries of the figurative. The Color Field Painting art movement within Abstract Expressionism is one example of how pattern in art is created by large areas of colors.
Color is often described as being the subject matter of the painting from this style, coupled with various shapes. Additionally, colors were also applied on “flat” surfaces that are usually also described as “large fields” of color. An example of how a pattern in artwork from the Color Field Painting art style is created includes Shoot (1964) by Kenneth Noland. Here, we see an inverted triangular shape consisting of four bands of color. Although there is an emphasis on shape here too, it works closely alongside color, and we see how colors equally create the geometric patterns.

=== Patterns in Texture ===
Texture in visual arts can either be implied/illusional or tactile, created by the physical medium itself like paint and the brushstrokes on a canvas. Brushstrokes can also create patterns on the canvas and become part of the composition. An example of how pattern in artwork is created through brushstrokes and texture can be found in the famous and loved The Starry Night (1889) painting by Vincent van Gogh.

The brushstrokes composing the sky, the landscape, and the looming cypress tree in the left foreground, all appear similar, creating a dynamic pattern. We can see the swirls of paint, created by Van Gogh’s utilization of brushstrokes, composing the sky, which gives it rhythm and movement. The brushstrokes move from one direction to the other and form circular arrangements around the moon and stars.

Example of Pattern in ArtThe Starry Night (1889) by Vincent van Gogh; Vincent van Gogh, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. These brushstroke lines are echoed in the sloping hills in the background, and further in the landscape below that shows houses and trees. The composition becomes harmonious because of the unity of patterns created from the brushstrokes.

Jackson Pollock from Abstract Expressionism is a famous example of how physical paint splattered and streaked onto a canvas can create patterns. He was known for his so-called “drip technique” and what is known as “Action Painting”. An example of pattern in art can be seen in Pollock’s Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) (1950) depicts drips of paint, which appear as streaks all intertwining, overlapping, and moving in every direction possible, however, the physical paint on the canvas creates a random and irregular patterned effect.

If we look at other modalities like sculpture, notably ceramics, patterns become ideal decorations. For example, we can look as far back as ancient Greek pottery, a vast world of its own depicting myriads of mythological narratives around the circumferences of vessels utilized for everyday activities. An example of this includes the François Vase (ca. 570 – 565 BCE), which was painted by the Athenian known as Kleitias and the potter was Ergotimos.

This vase was found by the archaeologist Alessandro François, after whom it was named. It depicts various mythological narratives, from gods to heroes, all arranged around the vase in what is known as “friezes”. Although the friezes depict different events occurring around the vase, there is still a pattern, albeit irregular, created.

Various Types of Pattern in ArtA drawing (c. 1895-1920) of the François Vase (c. 570-565 BCE); Unknown author Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns in Shapes and Forms ===
Shapes and forms are often utilized to create patterns and there are almost endless possibilities when it comes to how these can be arranged or sequenced. Shapes can be anything from squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, ovals, and more.

Forms can be anything from three-dimensional shapes like spheres or cubes, but also figurative forms. Examples of pattern in art that utilizes shape can be found in the artwork of Piet Mondrian, who was the pioneer of the art style called Neo-Plasticism, namely his Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) where he utilizes black outlines that then form squares and rectangles on the canvas with white in between and some colored areas.

Pattern in Artwork Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The composition appears almost as checkered patterns and the shapes are not all the same size thus creating irregular patterns. This was a common characteristic in Mondrian’s art, and we find his geometric and irregular patterning of shapes in numerous of his paintings. In one of Mondrian’s other paintings, Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943), we see more square and rectangular shapes with areas of color, including white in between.

However, this arrangement appears more irregular, which ironically creates a compositional unity due to the similarity in the patterning of shapes and colors.

Paintings With Art Patterns Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

An example where shapes are depicted as a more symmetrical pattern in artwork can be seen in the paintings by Mark Rothko, who was also a Color Field painter. His Untitled, Black on Gray (1969) depicts two joined rectangles, the top is black, and the bottom is gray. You might wonder how this has anything to do with a pattern, but it illustrates how shapes are repeated and placed in a symmetrical arrangement, even just two shapes.

In other words, there is more order to it and the differences are in the colors, which give it character, but also speak to a deeper meaning that Rothko intended, that being about “death”. The Symbolist painter Gustav Klimt is famous for his painting The Kiss (1907-1908), which depicts an assortment of shapes like rectangles, circles, and squares all arranged in patterns as decorative motifs for the subject matter. These are also evident in Klimt’s Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907), but it also has organic shapes like spirals and ovular eye shapes.

Types of Pattern in ArtLEFT: The Kiss (1907-1908) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons | RIGHT: Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Another artist worth mentioning who employed organic forms as patterns was William Morris, who was one of the pioneers of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England during the 1800s. He was a painter, textile artist and designer, poet, and writer, among many others. Morris was inspired by a Medieval art style and often created organic and natural designs that depicted beautiful decorative patterns.

For example, his wallpaper designs like the Larkspur Wallpaper (1874), Acanthus Wallpaper (1875), and Sunflower Wallpaper (1879); he reportedly created over 50 designs. Each design features floral and foliage-inspired motifs and appears natural in its repeated curvatures and curls. He is often quoted comparing patterns to a “fortress” and that “it is no stronger than its weakest point”.

Famous Art PatternsBlackthorn wallpaper (1892) by William Morris & Company; William Morris, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

From geometric shapes, fauna, and flora to figurative forms of famous pop stars, repeated en masse by Pop Artist Andy Warhol. The Marilyn Diptych (1962) is just one of many examples by Warhol of how he created patterns from pop culture. In this silkscreen painting, he depicted 50 iterations of Marilyn Monroe’s portrait all arranged in horizontal rows of five; the left section is in color and the right is in black and white.

However, there cannot be a mention of Andy Warhol without mentioning his famous Campbell’s Soup Cans (1962), which consists of 32 individual canvases with the image of a Campbell Soup can painted on it (all the cans are different flavors too). Warhol reportedly touched on mass media and the advertisement industry, of which repetition and replication are a large part.

=== Patterns in Lines ===
Bridget Riley from the Op Art movement became well-known for producing compositions that appeared like optical illusions through shapes, lines, and colors. For example, Riley’s oil on canvas Nataraja (1993) depicts bands of color, or as some describe it “stripes”, arranged in diagonal patterns, however, upon closer viewing, horizontal bands become evident and run from top to bottom of the canvas, thus also creating an optical effect.

Frank Stella’s artworks have been ascribed to the Minimalist art style as well as Hard-Edge painting. In his enamel on canvas painting The Marriage of Reason and Squalor, II (1959), which was part of his series of Black Paintings (1958-1960) the artist painted black strips or bands on the canvas with thin gaps in between, which is the canvas underneath that appear as white lines. The shape of the composition is described as an inverted “U” and the arrangement of the black and white lines creates a patterned effect. This composition is also more geometric and symmetrical, denoting an ordered arrangement of lines. Stella created several more from his series, also enamel on canvas, some include Jill (1959), which depicts lines in a diamond shape that starts small in the center and becomes bigger as it emanates outwards, and Zambezi (1959), which appears as a large “X” shape with open-ended triangular shapes moving outwards in each direction.

Another example of pattern in artwork with a focus on lines comes from Gene Davis, who was part of the Color Field Painting art style. He created artworks that depicted vertical lines in multi colors, for example, Hot Beat (1964), Red Witch (1966), and Dr. Peppercorn (1967).

=== Patterns in Space ===
Space as an element of art refers to the compositional space, which is described as the area that occurs “around” the main subject matter. Furthermore, space can be positive or negative, in other words, the positive space consists of the primary subject matter, or the area of focus in the composition, and negative space consists of the area around the focal point, which is sometimes “unused” but can be equally impactful in drawing attention.

Any pattern in artwork can be created through positive and negative space through the arrangement of an assortment of motifs, and some artists like M. C. Escher became famous for how he played with patterns and space, giving rise to numerous optical illusions known as his “tessellations”. Art Patterns Part of a tile tableau of Birds and Fishes by M. C. Escher from 1960 in the Dutch Tile Museum in Otterlo. The tableau was designed for his home at 59 Dirk Schäferstraat in Amsterdam; HenkvD, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Examples include Escher’s Day and Night (1937), which depicts an aerial view of a town and a flying flock of birds in the sky. The composition is split into two mirror images; however, the left side depicts the daytime with blackbirds, which is the positive space, and the right side, the nighttime, has white birds, which is the positive space. In Escher’s example of pattern in art, Bird Fish (1938), we see the patterned interplay between positive and negative space. Here there are rows of red/orange birds with white fish filling up the spaces around them, however, we can also say there are white fish with birds filling up the space around them – it all depends on how you look at it.

== Repetition, Repetition, Repetition ==
In this article, we explored patterns as one of the Principles of Art. The types of pattern in art can be anything from geometric and structured shapes or lines to flowy, curvy, and natural forms, all arranged and repeated to create various effects.

Patterns are part of a world of artful arrangements that can have hundreds of meanings, from serving as decorations, optical illusions, or merely art for art’s sake. However, patterns created by Andy Warhol, for example, touch on larger ideas of consumerism, and we could also go so far as to say that patterns create the means by which mass media can reproduce products or people. In other words, patterns allow for replication, one item placed next to the other, whether it is on a grocery shelf or art gallery wall. Patterns speak to the decorative as well as to the monotony of many.

While we have only outlined several prominent artists from all walks of life and art movements as examples of how patterns occur in art, we encourage you to look further, see between the lines, between the birds, around the splashes of paint, and swirls of brushstrokes and rows of images of Marilyn Monroe – patterns are everywhere, and as the adage goes, “repetition, repetition, repetition”.

== Frequently Asked Questions ==

'''What Are Patterns?'''

Pattern in art is one of the principles of art and are motifs (consisting of shapes, lines, and forms) that are repeated in arrangements, sequences, and groupings, whether ordered horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, or more irregular and random. Patterns can create a sense of rhythm or lead to a main focal point.

'''What Are the Types of Pattern in Art?'''

There are so-called man-made patterns and natural patterns, and they can be geometric or organic. Some patterns can consist of lines, curls, spirals, animal shapes, zigzags, dots, arabesques, circles, and squares, among many others.

'''What Are the Principles of Art?'''

The principles of art are so-called organizational principles, in other words, they determine how art elements (line, color, form, texture, space, shape, and value) will be applied in a visual composition. The art principles are namely, balance, harmony, unity, scale, proportion, emphasis, variety, pattern, repetition, movement, and rhythm.

= Golden Ratio =

== Da Vinci and the Divine Proportion in Art Composition ==

''July 7, 2014 by Gary Meisner''

Leonardo Da Vinci has long been associated with the golden ratio. This association was reinforced in popular culture in 2003 by Dan Brown’s best selling book “The Da Vinci Code.” The plot has pivotal clues involving the golden ratio and Fibonacci series. In 2006, the public awareness of the association grew when the book was turned into a movie starring veteran actor Tom Hanks. Da Vinci’s association with the golden ratio, known in his time as the Divine proportion, runs much longer and deeper.

=== Da Vinci’s illustrations appear in Pacioli’s book “The Divine Proportion” ===
Da Vinci created the illustrations for the book “De Divina Proportione” (The Divine Proportion) by Luca Pacioli. It was written in about 1497 and first published in 1509. Pacioli was a contemporary of Da Vinci’s, and the book contains dozens of beautiful illustrations of three-dimensional geometric solids and templates for script letters in calligraphy. The original manuscript can be viewed online at http://issuu.com/s.c.williams-library/docs/de_divina_proportione. As of this writing in 2014, no English translation is available.

In the book, Pacioli writes of mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in art and architecture. Some geometric solids, such as dodecahedrons and icosahedrons, have inherent golden ratios in their dimensions and spatial positions of their intersecting lines. Other examples of golden ratios in the illustrations include the one architectural illustration in the book and the one script letter (G) that is not divided horizontally at its midpoint.

[[File:1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d4/1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/63/2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/9/93/3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/22/4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|alt=|left]]

On the first page of De Divina Proportione, Pacioli states that his intent is to reveal to artists the secret of harmonic forms through the use of the Divine proportion, describing his writing as:

''A work necessary for all the clear-sighted and inquiring human minds, in which everyone who loves to study philosophy, perspective, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and other mathematical disciplines will find a very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching and will delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science.''

=== Golden ratios / Divine proportions appear in Renaissance art in paintings of religious importance ===
Da Vinci’s use of the Divine proportion is evident in some of his own works, even before his collaboration with Pacioli. The paintings I reviewed suggest that the use of the Divine proportion in paintings among Renaissance artists may have been more common in paintings of special religious significance.

It appears that Da Vinci applied Divine proportions in his rendition of “The Annunciation, painted in about 1472-1473. An exact determination is difficult with 100% certainty because various images available of this painting are cropped slightly differently. It appears to be the basis for the dimensions of the walls and entry way of the courtyard, as well other elements of the composition, as shown in the photos below. Other golden ratios can be found, but to avoid any perception that this is arbitrary those shown are based on very distinct features of the painting. Botticelli also used the golden ratio in several renditions he created of “The Annunciation” between 1485 and 1493. Michelangelo used it in “The Creation of Adam” in 1510.

[[File:1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios based on width of painting canvas, using Florence Museum image. Note alignment of vertical walls and courtyard entry.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d7/1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from left side to precise center of canvas, which aligns with the mountain peak. Note positioning of angle face and wings, as well as position of the one tree in the background that’s different from all the others.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/4/42/2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|frame|300 px|The Annunciation|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/f/f2/3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|frame|300 px|Variation on this image shows divine proportion position of the entry to the courtyard|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/5/5e/4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|frame|300 px|The ornamentation of the table is at the golden mean of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|frame|300 px|The peaks of the mountains in relation to the top of the canvas are in golden ratio proportion|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/ca/6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|center]]

= Animals in Paintings =

== Leonardo da Vinci saw in animals the ‘image of the world’ ==

''April 12, 2019, Arielle Saiber, Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Bowdoin College''

About six months ago I stopped eating meat. I was teaching a graduate course at UCLA that investigated how Italian Renaissance writers conveyed their concepts about the human through writing about the nonhuman – plants, animals, objects, angels, demons, gods and God. As weeks passed, I found myself becoming more and more attuned to the nonhuman entities all around me, more aware of their vibrant lives. Cutting flowers for a short-lived bouquet seemed wrong; chewing on animal flesh became flat out impossible.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the authors we were studying in the course. Out of the thousands of pages comprising his 25 documented codices, known collectively as his “Notebooks,” we read passages describing the natural world and its inhabitants, and some of his philosophical maxims, fables and riddles. In a striking passage that introduces his “Treatise on Water,” he wrote:

''“By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is composed of earth, water, air, and fire, his body resembles that of the earth; and as man has in him bones — the supports and framework of his flesh —, the world has its rocks — the supports of the earth; as man has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which likewise rises and falls … ”''

Unlike many thinkers of his time who anthropomorphized the Earth, Leonardo terramorphized man. But it was not just man that Leonardo saw as a Platonic microcosmic-world-in-miniature. Animals, he wrote, are “the image of the world.” They reflect the Earth, just as we do.

[[File:Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings. Leonardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ef/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_animals_hold_their_own_against_human_beings.png|center]]

=== Humans not superior to animal world ===
Leonardo never challenged the Christian belief that human beings were made in the image of God, nor the classical notion that man’s proportions and symmetries (albeit a white, middle-aged, able-bodied, European man) were beautiful and worthy of imitation in architecture and art. But he also never claimed other living beings were less beautiful, soulless, or lacked intelligence.

When comparing animals and humans – which he did often – animals often came out looking better. In one of his notes, Leonardo wrote, “Man has much power of discourse, which for the most part is vain and false; animals have but little, but it is useful and true, and a small truth is better than a great lie.” He often pointed out how much more powerful animals’ senses were, how much faster, stronger, more efficient and capable they were of performing remarkable feats, such as flight.

And animals were not nearly as “bestial” to one another as humans could be. “King of the animals – as thou hast described him – I should rather say king of the beasts,” he wrote. Leonardo lamented how human stomachs have become “a sepulcher for all animals” and how “our life is made by the death of others.”

=== Leonardo the vegetarian? ===
This passage, along with other writing about humans as killing machines and their esophagi as animal cemeteries, as well as a few comments by his contemporaries, have led many to believe that Leonardo was a vegetarian.

There is a 1515/6 letter by the Italian explorer Andrea Corsali to Giuliano de’ Medici that – in discussing how the Gujarati of India won’t eat anything with blood or allow hurt to come to any animate thing – says they are “like our Leonardo da Vinci.” Corsali, however, did not know Leonardo well, and the sentence is ambiguous; it could just mean that Leonardo never hurt animals or wanted to see them hurt.

Artist and biographer Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) noted that Leonardo was famed for buying caged birds and setting them free and Leonardo did, in fact, advocate for eating Nature’s abundant senplici (“simples”), a term which seems to imply plant-based recipes. He pondered why Nature had created a world in which animals ate each other, but concluded it was because life is compelled to reproduce and endure, and consequently, Nature needed a way to keep numbers down.

[[File:Leonardo was captivated by birds’ power of flight.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo was captivated by birds’ power of flight. Leonardo da Vinci/Wikimedia Commons.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/21/Leonardo_was_captivated_by_birds%E2%80%99_power_of_flight.png|center]]

Nowhere in his writing, however, did he speak of not eating meat. His grocery lists have meat on them, although it is possible he was purchasing it for members of his household: students, servants, guests, animals.

Whether he ate a totally meat-free diet or not is unclear, but his love for animals is unquestionable. He lived with animals on a farm as a child and they were ever-present in his studio – likely cats and dogs, insects, birds and reptiles (some alive, some deceased). Leonardo studied them, depicted them, wrote about them and built machines – even war machines – inspired by them.

[[File:Leonardo’s ‘Allegory of a Dog and an Eagle’.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s ‘Allegory of a Dog and an Eagle.’ Leonardo da Vinci/Royal Collection Trust.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ee/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_%E2%80%98Allegory_of_a_Dog_and_an_Eagle%E2%80%99.png|center]]

=== Literary animals ===
Leonardo’s literary writing – fables, riddles, aphorisms – is filled with animals. While they often serve as Aesopic moral stand-ins for humans, Leonardo also used them differently than other classical, medieval and Renaissance fabulists, contrasting them to humans, celebrating their strengths and wisdom and critiquing how humans treat them.

In his “Prophecy” riddles — which read like predictions of a horrendous apocalyptic future — one encounters legions of cruelty and pain. “I see children of thine given up to slavery to others … paid with the severest suffering, and spend[ing] their whole life benefiting those who ill treat them.” As a riddle, this is not what it seems. He’s writing not of humans, but rather, of donkeys, and how humans repay their services with unkindness and even violence. That said, in an empathic move, Leonardo was also linking humans to donkeys, and pointing to the ever-present fact that humans subject other humans to terrible fates.

In another riddle he noted the twistedness of horned animals being slaughtered by horn-handled knives, and the ostensible cannibalism of masters of estates “eating their own laborers” – oxen.

And in a particularly chilling prophecy, he described animals so full of evil that they were destroying all life on land and sea: He cries, “O Earth! Why dost thou not open and engulf [these animals] in the fissure of thy vast abyss and caverns, and no longer display in the sight of heaven such a cruel and horrible monster!” The monster, of course, is man.

Although many people assume Leonardo’s Vitruvian Man is an indication of an adherence to the commonly, but not universally, held Renaissance notion that man was the most perfect of beings and “the measure of all things,” his literary and artistic production seem to show that he saw animals as the true “image of the world.” While he included human beings in the group he called “animals,” it was not as preeminent entities, but as one of the world’s infinite, beautiful varieties.

[[File:Horses were among the animals Leonardo most frequently sketched.png|frame|300 px|Horses were among the animals Leonardo most frequently sketched. Leoardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/c8/Horses_were_among_the_animals_Leonardo_most_frequently_sketched.png|center]]

=== Animals on their own terms ===
Animals proliferate in Leonardo’s visual art. In his sketches we see horses run, trot, rear up on back legs, fall. Birds, bats and insects extend their wings. Cats stretch, wrestle and lounge. Lions roar. Bears, dogs, crabs, rhinoceroses quietly stand or walk. Beetles and ants bend their appendages.

His animals are anything but nature-morte; they are alive with motion and, seemingly, emotion. Within his paintings one can see, for example, a gentle, communicative lion in the unfinished “Saint Jerome in the Wilderness” (c. 1480); an affectionate ermine in “Lady with an Ermine” (1489-90); an erotic swan in the 1503-1507 sketches for a never-produced painting, “Leda and the Swan”); a lamb being hugged by the child Jesus in “The Virgin and the Child with Saint Anne” (1510). And, of course, horses: ceremonial and military (“The Adoration of the Magi” (1481), “The Battle of Anghiari” (preparatory studies, 1504-1505).

[[File:The Lady with an Ermine.png|frame|300 px|‘The Lady with an Ermine (Portrait of Cecilia Gallerani)’ Leonardo da Vinci/Wikimedia Commons.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/8/82/The_Lady_with_an_Ermine.png|center]]

All these animals are present in his writing, too, joined by an ark-load more: domesticated, wild, local, exotic, mythical (dragons!) and imaginary (sea-monsters!). Leonardo’s depictions of animals emerge not only as forces that teach us about ourselves and challenge our sense of human primacy, but as powerful, creative forces, on their own terms.

Leonardo chipped away at the walls between “us” and “them” by placing all life on a level field, all things as micro-reflections of a macro-whole. And as he envisioned in his terrifying visual and verbal depictions of catastrophic deluges and global disasters, we’re all in this together.

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{{DISPLAYTITLE: Leonardo da Vinci Patterns}}
= Patterns in Art =
There are patterns almost everywhere you look, the world is filled with them, but what are patterns, and what makes them important in art? This is the topic we will explore in the research listed below.

== What Are Patterns? ==
Patterns have to do with repetition, arrangements, and sequences and can be seen in natural and urban environments. These beautiful patterns are found throughout the natural world, from atomic to the astronomical scale. A few of the patterns we see in nature are Symmetries (mirror & radial), Fractals (branching), Spirals, Flow, Foam, Waves, Tiling and even Cracks. But these could also be the mossy patches on tree bark, the row of windows on a skyscraper, the whorls of a seashell, to the swirls of paint on a Vincent van Gogh painting! However, patterns can also be in other disciplines like mathematics, engineering, architecture, literature, music, and different cultures from all over the world utilize patterns to decorate important objects like masks, textiles, sculptures, and even themselves through body art. What is common in the natural according and the created is that patterns are created through the arrangement of shapes, forms, or lines, which are sometimes known as the term “motifs”, and can be either deliberate or natural. In art, patterns can occur in sequential order or progression to create rhythm, movement, visual appeal, or emphasis.

== Types of Patterns ==
As mentioned above, the two main types of patterns occur naturally or artificially/deliberately, in other words as some sources describe: “natural” and “man-made”. But for both of them, these types of patterns can be arranged in symmetric, asymmetric, geometric, organic, regular, or irregular sequences. Furthermore, patterns can appear as tiles or tessellations, waves, spirals, crisscrosses, curls, loops, rows, lines, zigzags, florals, dots, blocks, and more! The repetitions can also come in varying shapes, styles, specific techniques, forms, shapes, sizes, and directions. For example, patterns can move outwards from a central area, they can move from left to right, up or down, and diagonally.

== The Principles of Art ==
It is important to note that “pattern” is one of the principles of art. Why, because a specific artist is recognizable by his/her/its “principles of design”. The most common principles include pattern, styles, specific techniques, repetition, rhythm, movement, variety, unity, harmony, balance, scale, proportion, and emphasis. The art principles create an organization for the elements of art and how they are utilized and applied to compose visual compositions.

'''Principles of Art and their Characteristics'''

Pattern = This is created through arrangements and sequences of signs or various “motifs” to add a variety of visual effects.

Repetition = This is related to patterns in art, and also determines how patterns are arranged.

Rhythm = This is when art elements are utilized and arranged in dynamic sequences that give the composition a feel of movement and directs the viewer’s eyes to a focal point or around the artwork.

Movement = This is also related to rhythm, but is more specific when the intention is to arrange art elements to create visual dynamism or convey a sense of speed.

Variety = This is about differences and avoiding monotony in a visual composition.

Unity = This refers to the whole composition and how all the art elements utilized relate to one another to appear visually holistic.

Harmony = This can apply to any of the art elements applied to be complementary to one another and thus visually “appealing”.

Balance = This can relate closely to, and not to be confused with, harmony and unity, but it is about the “weight” of all the art elements in a composition.

Scale = This is when two parts are placed next to the other to depict the visual differences in size.

Proportion = This is when parts of one object appear in different sizes.

Emphasis = This stresses certain significant aspects of a visual composition.

The elements of art, on the other hand, include seven main parts, namely, shape, form, line, texture, color, space, and value. These are also understood as the “building blocks” of a visual composition of a specific artist.

'''Art Elements and their Characteristics'''

Shape = There are several types of shapes, for example, circles or squares, and they are depicted on a flat surface.

Form = There are also several types of forms like spheres or cubes, but they have more depth and can also refer to a figurative form.

Line = This creates the outline of a form or structure and can create geometric shapes into more organic naturalistic forms.

Texture = This can be anything from smooth, coarse, shiny, prickly, or leathery in a visual composition, and can also be the actual paint on a canvas or the clay of sculpture.

Color = This is anything from primary, secondary, or tertiary colors, to saturation, temperature, or color schemes.

Space = This is what the “area” consists of in a visual composition or it can be the area around a sculptural object.

Value = This is best understood as visualizing a grayscale and how light or dark a hue appears.

== How Patterns Are Utilized in Art ==
Now that you understand what patterns are and their role as a principle of art, how can you utilize and apply pattern in art? Firstly, art patterns can be created with any of the art elements, and it all depends on the aim of the visual composition and what its purpose is. There are endless possibilities when it comes to creating art patterns. Below, we will look at how art patterns are created using art elements like color, shape, line, and so forth, providing examples from various artists throughout art history to illustrate how the types of pattern in art have been applied. It is also interesting to note that more than one art element can be utilized in a pattern, for example, the same shapes may be arranged in regular patterns, but be in irregular colors or vice versa. Different Types of Pattern in ArtA pattern by Paul Bürck, 1899; Paul Bürck, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns and Color ===
Colors can be utilized to create patterns, from monochromatic to multicolor. Furthermore, colors can be arranged in such a way that creates shapes like circles, squares, or rectangles. Colors can evoke different feelings and ideas, simply be decorative, or transcend the boundaries of the figurative. The Color Field Painting art movement within Abstract Expressionism is one example of how pattern in art is created by large areas of colors.
Color is often described as being the subject matter of the painting from this style, coupled with various shapes. Additionally, colors were also applied on “flat” surfaces that are usually also described as “large fields” of color. An example of how a pattern in artwork from the Color Field Painting art style is created includes Shoot (1964) by Kenneth Noland. Here, we see an inverted triangular shape consisting of four bands of color. Although there is an emphasis on shape here too, it works closely alongside color, and we see how colors equally create the geometric patterns.

=== Patterns in Texture ===
Texture in visual arts can either be implied/illusional or tactile, created by the physical medium itself like paint and the brushstrokes on a canvas. Brushstrokes can also create patterns on the canvas and become part of the composition. An example of how pattern in artwork is created through brushstrokes and texture can be found in the famous and loved The Starry Night (1889) painting by Vincent van Gogh.

The brushstrokes composing the sky, the landscape, and the looming cypress tree in the left foreground, all appear similar, creating a dynamic pattern. We can see the swirls of paint, created by Van Gogh’s utilization of brushstrokes, composing the sky, which gives it rhythm and movement. The brushstrokes move from one direction to the other and form circular arrangements around the moon and stars.

Example of Pattern in ArtThe Starry Night (1889) by Vincent van Gogh; Vincent van Gogh, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. These brushstroke lines are echoed in the sloping hills in the background, and further in the landscape below that shows houses and trees. The composition becomes harmonious because of the unity of patterns created from the brushstrokes.

Jackson Pollock from Abstract Expressionism is a famous example of how physical paint splattered and streaked onto a canvas can create patterns. He was known for his so-called “drip technique” and what is known as “Action Painting”. An example of pattern in art can be seen in Pollock’s Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) (1950) depicts drips of paint, which appear as streaks all intertwining, overlapping, and moving in every direction possible, however, the physical paint on the canvas creates a random and irregular patterned effect.

If we look at other modalities like sculpture, notably ceramics, patterns become ideal decorations. For example, we can look as far back as ancient Greek pottery, a vast world of its own depicting myriads of mythological narratives around the circumferences of vessels utilized for everyday activities. An example of this includes the François Vase (ca. 570 – 565 BCE), which was painted by the Athenian known as Kleitias and the potter was Ergotimos.

This vase was found by the archaeologist Alessandro François, after whom it was named. It depicts various mythological narratives, from gods to heroes, all arranged around the vase in what is known as “friezes”. Although the friezes depict different events occurring around the vase, there is still a pattern, albeit irregular, created.

Various Types of Pattern in ArtA drawing (c. 1895-1920) of the François Vase (c. 570-565 BCE); Unknown author Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns in Shapes and Forms ===
Shapes and forms are often utilized to create patterns and there are almost endless possibilities when it comes to how these can be arranged or sequenced. Shapes can be anything from squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, ovals, and more.

Forms can be anything from three-dimensional shapes like spheres or cubes, but also figurative forms. Examples of pattern in art that utilizes shape can be found in the artwork of Piet Mondrian, who was the pioneer of the art style called Neo-Plasticism, namely his Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) where he utilizes black outlines that then form squares and rectangles on the canvas with white in between and some colored areas.

Pattern in Artwork Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The composition appears almost as checkered patterns and the shapes are not all the same size thus creating irregular patterns. This was a common characteristic in Mondrian’s art, and we find his geometric and irregular patterning of shapes in numerous of his paintings. In one of Mondrian’s other paintings, Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943), we see more square and rectangular shapes with areas of color, including white in between.

However, this arrangement appears more irregular, which ironically creates a compositional unity due to the similarity in the patterning of shapes and colors.

Paintings With Art Patterns Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

An example where shapes are depicted as a more symmetrical pattern in artwork can be seen in the paintings by Mark Rothko, who was also a Color Field painter. His Untitled, Black on Gray (1969) depicts two joined rectangles, the top is black, and the bottom is gray. You might wonder how this has anything to do with a pattern, but it illustrates how shapes are repeated and placed in a symmetrical arrangement, even just two shapes.

In other words, there is more order to it and the differences are in the colors, which give it character, but also speak to a deeper meaning that Rothko intended, that being about “death”. The Symbolist painter Gustav Klimt is famous for his painting The Kiss (1907-1908), which depicts an assortment of shapes like rectangles, circles, and squares all arranged in patterns as decorative motifs for the subject matter. These are also evident in Klimt’s Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907), but it also has organic shapes like spirals and ovular eye shapes.

Types of Pattern in ArtLEFT: The Kiss (1907-1908) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons | RIGHT: Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Another artist worth mentioning who employed organic forms as patterns was William Morris, who was one of the pioneers of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England during the 1800s. He was a painter, textile artist and designer, poet, and writer, among many others. Morris was inspired by a Medieval art style and often created organic and natural designs that depicted beautiful decorative patterns.

For example, his wallpaper designs like the Larkspur Wallpaper (1874), Acanthus Wallpaper (1875), and Sunflower Wallpaper (1879); he reportedly created over 50 designs. Each design features floral and foliage-inspired motifs and appears natural in its repeated curvatures and curls. He is often quoted comparing patterns to a “fortress” and that “it is no stronger than its weakest point”.

Famous Art PatternsBlackthorn wallpaper (1892) by William Morris & Company; William Morris, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

From geometric shapes, fauna, and flora to figurative forms of famous pop stars, repeated en masse by Pop Artist Andy Warhol. The Marilyn Diptych (1962) is just one of many examples by Warhol of how he created patterns from pop culture. In this silkscreen painting, he depicted 50 iterations of Marilyn Monroe’s portrait all arranged in horizontal rows of five; the left section is in color and the right is in black and white.

However, there cannot be a mention of Andy Warhol without mentioning his famous Campbell’s Soup Cans (1962), which consists of 32 individual canvases with the image of a Campbell Soup can painted on it (all the cans are different flavors too). Warhol reportedly touched on mass media and the advertisement industry, of which repetition and replication are a large part.

=== Patterns in Lines ===
Bridget Riley from the Op Art movement became well-known for producing compositions that appeared like optical illusions through shapes, lines, and colors. For example, Riley’s oil on canvas Nataraja (1993) depicts bands of color, or as some describe it “stripes”, arranged in diagonal patterns, however, upon closer viewing, horizontal bands become evident and run from top to bottom of the canvas, thus also creating an optical effect.

Frank Stella’s artworks have been ascribed to the Minimalist art style as well as Hard-Edge painting. In his enamel on canvas painting The Marriage of Reason and Squalor, II (1959), which was part of his series of Black Paintings (1958-1960) the artist painted black strips or bands on the canvas with thin gaps in between, which is the canvas underneath that appear as white lines. The shape of the composition is described as an inverted “U” and the arrangement of the black and white lines creates a patterned effect. This composition is also more geometric and symmetrical, denoting an ordered arrangement of lines. Stella created several more from his series, also enamel on canvas, some include Jill (1959), which depicts lines in a diamond shape that starts small in the center and becomes bigger as it emanates outwards, and Zambezi (1959), which appears as a large “X” shape with open-ended triangular shapes moving outwards in each direction.

Another example of pattern in artwork with a focus on lines comes from Gene Davis, who was part of the Color Field Painting art style. He created artworks that depicted vertical lines in multi colors, for example, Hot Beat (1964), Red Witch (1966), and Dr. Peppercorn (1967).

=== Patterns in Space ===
Space as an element of art refers to the compositional space, which is described as the area that occurs “around” the main subject matter. Furthermore, space can be positive or negative, in other words, the positive space consists of the primary subject matter, or the area of focus in the composition, and negative space consists of the area around the focal point, which is sometimes “unused” but can be equally impactful in drawing attention.

Any pattern in artwork can be created through positive and negative space through the arrangement of an assortment of motifs, and some artists like M. C. Escher became famous for how he played with patterns and space, giving rise to numerous optical illusions known as his “tessellations”. Art Patterns Part of a tile tableau of Birds and Fishes by M. C. Escher from 1960 in the Dutch Tile Museum in Otterlo. The tableau was designed for his home at 59 Dirk Schäferstraat in Amsterdam; HenkvD, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Examples include Escher’s Day and Night (1937), which depicts an aerial view of a town and a flying flock of birds in the sky. The composition is split into two mirror images; however, the left side depicts the daytime with blackbirds, which is the positive space, and the right side, the nighttime, has white birds, which is the positive space. In Escher’s example of pattern in art, Bird Fish (1938), we see the patterned interplay between positive and negative space. Here there are rows of red/orange birds with white fish filling up the spaces around them, however, we can also say there are white fish with birds filling up the space around them – it all depends on how you look at it.

== Repetition, Repetition, Repetition ==
In this article, we explored patterns as one of the Principles of Art. The types of pattern in art can be anything from geometric and structured shapes or lines to flowy, curvy, and natural forms, all arranged and repeated to create various effects.

Patterns are part of a world of artful arrangements that can have hundreds of meanings, from serving as decorations, optical illusions, or merely art for art’s sake. However, patterns created by Andy Warhol, for example, touch on larger ideas of consumerism, and we could also go so far as to say that patterns create the means by which mass media can reproduce products or people. In other words, patterns allow for replication, one item placed next to the other, whether it is on a grocery shelf or art gallery wall. Patterns speak to the decorative as well as to the monotony of many.

While we have only outlined several prominent artists from all walks of life and art movements as examples of how patterns occur in art, we encourage you to look further, see between the lines, between the birds, around the splashes of paint, and swirls of brushstrokes and rows of images of Marilyn Monroe – patterns are everywhere, and as the adage goes, “repetition, repetition, repetition”.

== Frequently Asked Questions ==

'''What Are Patterns?'''

Pattern in art is one of the principles of art and are motifs (consisting of shapes, lines, and forms) that are repeated in arrangements, sequences, and groupings, whether ordered horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, or more irregular and random. Patterns can create a sense of rhythm or lead to a main focal point.

'''What Are the Types of Pattern in Art?'''

There are so-called man-made patterns and natural patterns, and they can be geometric or organic. Some patterns can consist of lines, curls, spirals, animal shapes, zigzags, dots, arabesques, circles, and squares, among many others.

'''What Are the Principles of Art?'''

The principles of art are so-called organizational principles, in other words, they determine how art elements (line, color, form, texture, space, shape, and value) will be applied in a visual composition. The art principles are namely, balance, harmony, unity, scale, proportion, emphasis, variety, pattern, repetition, movement, and rhythm.

= Golden Ratio =

== Da Vinci and the Divine Proportion in Art Composition ==

''July 7, 2014 by Gary Meisner''

Leonardo Da Vinci has long been associated with the golden ratio. This association was reinforced in popular culture in 2003 by Dan Brown’s best selling book “The Da Vinci Code.” The plot has pivotal clues involving the golden ratio and Fibonacci series. In 2006, the public awareness of the association grew when the book was turned into a movie starring veteran actor Tom Hanks. Da Vinci’s association with the golden ratio, known in his time as the Divine proportion, runs much longer and deeper.

=== Da Vinci’s illustrations appear in Pacioli’s book “The Divine Proportion” ===
Da Vinci created the illustrations for the book “De Divina Proportione” (The Divine Proportion) by Luca Pacioli. It was written in about 1497 and first published in 1509. Pacioli was a contemporary of Da Vinci’s, and the book contains dozens of beautiful illustrations of three-dimensional geometric solids and templates for script letters in calligraphy. The original manuscript can be viewed online at http://issuu.com/s.c.williams-library/docs/de_divina_proportione. As of this writing in 2014, no English translation is available.

In the book, Pacioli writes of mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in art and architecture. Some geometric solids, such as dodecahedrons and icosahedrons, have inherent golden ratios in their dimensions and spatial positions of their intersecting lines. Other examples of golden ratios in the illustrations include the one architectural illustration in the book and the one script letter (G) that is not divided horizontally at its midpoint.

[[File:1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d4/1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/63/2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/9/93/3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/22/4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|alt=|left]]

On the first page of De Divina Proportione, Pacioli states that his intent is to reveal to artists the secret of harmonic forms through the use of the Divine proportion, describing his writing as:

''A work necessary for all the clear-sighted and inquiring human minds, in which everyone who loves to study philosophy, perspective, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and other mathematical disciplines will find a very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching and will delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science.''

=== Golden ratios / Divine proportions appear in Renaissance art in paintings of religious importance ===
Da Vinci’s use of the Divine proportion is evident in some of his own works, even before his collaboration with Pacioli. The paintings I reviewed suggest that the use of the Divine proportion in paintings among Renaissance artists may have been more common in paintings of special religious significance.

It appears that Da Vinci applied Divine proportions in his rendition of “The Annunciation, painted in about 1472-1473. An exact determination is difficult with 100% certainty because various images available of this painting are cropped slightly differently. It appears to be the basis for the dimensions of the walls and entry way of the courtyard, as well other elements of the composition, as shown in the photos below. Other golden ratios can be found, but to avoid any perception that this is arbitrary those shown are based on very distinct features of the painting. Botticelli also used the golden ratio in several renditions he created of “The Annunciation” between 1485 and 1493. Michelangelo used it in “The Creation of Adam” in 1510.

[[File:1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios based on width of painting canvas, using Florence Museum image. Note alignment of vertical walls and courtyard entry.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d7/1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from left side to precise center of canvas, which aligns with the mountain peak. Note positioning of angle face and wings, as well as position of the one tree in the background that’s different from all the others.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/4/42/2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|frame|300 px|The Annunciation|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/f/f2/3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|frame|300 px|Variation on this image shows divine proportion position of the entry to the courtyard|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/5/5e/4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|frame|300 px|The ornamentation of the table is at the golden mean of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|frame|300 px|The peaks of the mountains in relation to the top of the canvas are in golden ratio proportion|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/ca/6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|center]]

= Animals in Painting =

== Leonardo da Vinci saw in animals the ‘image of the world’ ==

''April 12, 2019, Arielle Saiber, Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Bowdoin College''

About six months ago I stopped eating meat. I was teaching a graduate course at UCLA that investigated how Italian Renaissance writers conveyed their concepts about the human through writing about the nonhuman – plants, animals, objects, angels, demons, gods and God. As weeks passed, I found myself becoming more and more attuned to the nonhuman entities all around me, more aware of their vibrant lives. Cutting flowers for a short-lived bouquet seemed wrong; chewing on animal flesh became flat out impossible.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the authors we were studying in the course. Out of the thousands of pages comprising his 25 documented codices, known collectively as his “Notebooks,” we read passages describing the natural world and its inhabitants, and some of his philosophical maxims, fables and riddles. In a striking passage that introduces his “Treatise on Water,” he wrote:

''“By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is composed of earth, water, air, and fire, his body resembles that of the earth; and as man has in him bones — the supports and framework of his flesh —, the world has its rocks — the supports of the earth; as man has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which likewise rises and falls … ”''

Unlike many thinkers of his time who anthropomorphized the Earth, Leonardo terramorphized man. But it was not just man that Leonardo saw as a Platonic microcosmic-world-in-miniature. Animals, he wrote, are “the image of the world.” They reflect the Earth, just as we do.

[[File:Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings. Leonardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ef/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_animals_hold_their_own_against_human_beings.png|center]]

== Humans not superior to animal world ==
Leonardo never challenged the Christian belief that human beings were made in the image of God, nor the classical notion that man’s proportions and symmetries (albeit a white, middle-aged, able-bodied, European man) were beautiful and worthy of imitation in architecture and art. But he also never claimed other living beings were less beautiful, soulless, or lacked intelligence.

When comparing animals and humans – which he did often – animals often came out looking better. In one of his notes, Leonardo wrote, “Man has much power of discourse, which for the most part is vain and false; animals have but little, but it is useful and true, and a small truth is better than a great lie.” He often pointed out how much more powerful animals’ senses were, how much faster, stronger, more efficient and capable they were of performing remarkable feats, such as flight.

And animals were not nearly as “bestial” to one another as humans could be. “King of the animals – as thou hast described him – I should rather say king of the beasts,” he wrote. Leonardo lamented how human stomachs have become “a sepulcher for all animals” and how “our life is made by the death of others.”

== Leonardo the vegetarian? ==
This passage, along with other writing about humans as killing machines and their esophagi as animal cemeteries, as well as a few comments by his contemporaries, have led many to believe that Leonardo was a vegetarian.

There is a 1515/6 letter by the Italian explorer Andrea Corsali to Giuliano de’ Medici that – in discussing how the Gujarati of India won’t eat anything with blood or allow hurt to come to any animate thing – says they are “like our Leonardo da Vinci.” Corsali, however, did not know Leonardo well, and the sentence is ambiguous; it could just mean that Leonardo never hurt animals or wanted to see them hurt.

Artist and biographer Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) noted that Leonardo was famed for buying caged birds and setting them free and Leonardo did, in fact, advocate for eating Nature’s abundant senplici (“simples”), a term which seems to imply plant-based recipes. He pondered why Nature had created a world in which animals ate each other, but concluded it was because life is compelled to reproduce and endure, and consequently, Nature needed a way to keep numbers down.

[[File:Leonardo was captivated by birds’ power of flight.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo was captivated by birds’ power of flight. Leonardo da Vinci/Wikimedia Commons.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/21/Leonardo_was_captivated_by_birds%E2%80%99_power_of_flight.png|center]]

Nowhere in his writing, however, did he speak of not eating meat. His grocery lists have meat on them, although it is possible he was purchasing it for members of his household: students, servants, guests, animals.

Whether he ate a totally meat-free diet or not is unclear, but his love for animals is unquestionable. He lived with animals on a farm as a child and they were ever-present in his studio – likely cats and dogs, insects, birds and reptiles (some alive, some deceased). Leonardo studied them, depicted them, wrote about them and built machines – even war machines – inspired by them.

[[File:Leonardo’s ‘Allegory of a Dog and an Eagle’.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s ‘Allegory of a Dog and an Eagle.’ Leonardo da Vinci/Royal Collection Trust.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ee/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_%E2%80%98Allegory_of_a_Dog_and_an_Eagle%E2%80%99.png|center]]

=== Unordered lists ===

* Item1
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*** Sub-item 4 a) 1.
**** Sub-item 4 a) 1. i)
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=== Ordered lists ===

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{{DISPLAYTITLE: Leonardo da Vinci Patterns}}
= Patterns in Art =
There are patterns almost everywhere you look, the world is filled with them, but what are patterns, and what makes them important in art? This is the topic we will explore in the research listed below.

== What Are Patterns? ==
Patterns have to do with repetition, arrangements, and sequences and can be seen in natural and urban environments. These beautiful patterns are found throughout the natural world, from atomic to the astronomical scale. A few of the patterns we see in nature are Symmetries (mirror & radial), Fractals (branching), Spirals, Flow, Foam, Waves, Tiling and even Cracks. But these could also be the mossy patches on tree bark, the row of windows on a skyscraper, the whorls of a seashell, to the swirls of paint on a Vincent van Gogh painting! However, patterns can also be in other disciplines like mathematics, engineering, architecture, literature, music, and different cultures from all over the world utilize patterns to decorate important objects like masks, textiles, sculptures, and even themselves through body art. What is common in the natural according and the created is that patterns are created through the arrangement of shapes, forms, or lines, which are sometimes known as the term “motifs”, and can be either deliberate or natural. In art, patterns can occur in sequential order or progression to create rhythm, movement, visual appeal, or emphasis.

== Types of Patterns ==
As mentioned above, the two main types of patterns occur naturally or artificially/deliberately, in other words as some sources describe: “natural” and “man-made”. But for both of them, these types of patterns can be arranged in symmetric, asymmetric, geometric, organic, regular, or irregular sequences. Furthermore, patterns can appear as tiles or tessellations, waves, spirals, crisscrosses, curls, loops, rows, lines, zigzags, florals, dots, blocks, and more! The repetitions can also come in varying shapes, styles, specific techniques, forms, shapes, sizes, and directions. For example, patterns can move outwards from a central area, they can move from left to right, up or down, and diagonally.

== The Principles of Art ==
It is important to note that “pattern” is one of the principles of art. Why, because a specific artist is recognizable by his/her/its “principles of design”. The most common principles include pattern, styles, specific techniques, repetition, rhythm, movement, variety, unity, harmony, balance, scale, proportion, and emphasis. The art principles create an organization for the elements of art and how they are utilized and applied to compose visual compositions.

'''Principles of Art and their Characteristics'''

Pattern = This is created through arrangements and sequences of signs or various “motifs” to add a variety of visual effects.

Repetition = This is related to patterns in art, and also determines how patterns are arranged.

Rhythm = This is when art elements are utilized and arranged in dynamic sequences that give the composition a feel of movement and directs the viewer’s eyes to a focal point or around the artwork.

Movement = This is also related to rhythm, but is more specific when the intention is to arrange art elements to create visual dynamism or convey a sense of speed.

Variety = This is about differences and avoiding monotony in a visual composition.

Unity = This refers to the whole composition and how all the art elements utilized relate to one another to appear visually holistic.

Harmony = This can apply to any of the art elements applied to be complementary to one another and thus visually “appealing”.

Balance = This can relate closely to, and not to be confused with, harmony and unity, but it is about the “weight” of all the art elements in a composition.

Scale = This is when two parts are placed next to the other to depict the visual differences in size.

Proportion = This is when parts of one object appear in different sizes.

Emphasis = This stresses certain significant aspects of a visual composition.

The elements of art, on the other hand, include seven main parts, namely, shape, form, line, texture, color, space, and value. These are also understood as the “building blocks” of a visual composition of a specific artist.

'''Art Elements and their Characteristics'''

Shape = There are several types of shapes, for example, circles or squares, and they are depicted on a flat surface.

Form = There are also several types of forms like spheres or cubes, but they have more depth and can also refer to a figurative form.

Line = This creates the outline of a form or structure and can create geometric shapes into more organic naturalistic forms.

Texture = This can be anything from smooth, coarse, shiny, prickly, or leathery in a visual composition, and can also be the actual paint on a canvas or the clay of sculpture.

Color = This is anything from primary, secondary, or tertiary colors, to saturation, temperature, or color schemes.

Space = This is what the “area” consists of in a visual composition or it can be the area around a sculptural object.

Value = This is best understood as visualizing a grayscale and how light or dark a hue appears.

== How Patterns Are Utilized in Art ==
Now that you understand what patterns are and their role as a principle of art, how can you utilize and apply pattern in art? Firstly, art patterns can be created with any of the art elements, and it all depends on the aim of the visual composition and what its purpose is. There are endless possibilities when it comes to creating art patterns. Below, we will look at how art patterns are created using art elements like color, shape, line, and so forth, providing examples from various artists throughout art history to illustrate how the types of pattern in art have been applied. It is also interesting to note that more than one art element can be utilized in a pattern, for example, the same shapes may be arranged in regular patterns, but be in irregular colors or vice versa. Different Types of Pattern in ArtA pattern by Paul Bürck, 1899; Paul Bürck, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns and Color ===
Colors can be utilized to create patterns, from monochromatic to multicolor. Furthermore, colors can be arranged in such a way that creates shapes like circles, squares, or rectangles. Colors can evoke different feelings and ideas, simply be decorative, or transcend the boundaries of the figurative. The Color Field Painting art movement within Abstract Expressionism is one example of how pattern in art is created by large areas of colors.
Color is often described as being the subject matter of the painting from this style, coupled with various shapes. Additionally, colors were also applied on “flat” surfaces that are usually also described as “large fields” of color. An example of how a pattern in artwork from the Color Field Painting art style is created includes Shoot (1964) by Kenneth Noland. Here, we see an inverted triangular shape consisting of four bands of color. Although there is an emphasis on shape here too, it works closely alongside color, and we see how colors equally create the geometric patterns.

=== Patterns in Texture ===
Texture in visual arts can either be implied/illusional or tactile, created by the physical medium itself like paint and the brushstrokes on a canvas. Brushstrokes can also create patterns on the canvas and become part of the composition. An example of how pattern in artwork is created through brushstrokes and texture can be found in the famous and loved The Starry Night (1889) painting by Vincent van Gogh.

The brushstrokes composing the sky, the landscape, and the looming cypress tree in the left foreground, all appear similar, creating a dynamic pattern. We can see the swirls of paint, created by Van Gogh’s utilization of brushstrokes, composing the sky, which gives it rhythm and movement. The brushstrokes move from one direction to the other and form circular arrangements around the moon and stars.

Example of Pattern in ArtThe Starry Night (1889) by Vincent van Gogh; Vincent van Gogh, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. These brushstroke lines are echoed in the sloping hills in the background, and further in the landscape below that shows houses and trees. The composition becomes harmonious because of the unity of patterns created from the brushstrokes.

Jackson Pollock from Abstract Expressionism is a famous example of how physical paint splattered and streaked onto a canvas can create patterns. He was known for his so-called “drip technique” and what is known as “Action Painting”. An example of pattern in art can be seen in Pollock’s Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) (1950) depicts drips of paint, which appear as streaks all intertwining, overlapping, and moving in every direction possible, however, the physical paint on the canvas creates a random and irregular patterned effect.

If we look at other modalities like sculpture, notably ceramics, patterns become ideal decorations. For example, we can look as far back as ancient Greek pottery, a vast world of its own depicting myriads of mythological narratives around the circumferences of vessels utilized for everyday activities. An example of this includes the François Vase (ca. 570 – 565 BCE), which was painted by the Athenian known as Kleitias and the potter was Ergotimos.

This vase was found by the archaeologist Alessandro François, after whom it was named. It depicts various mythological narratives, from gods to heroes, all arranged around the vase in what is known as “friezes”. Although the friezes depict different events occurring around the vase, there is still a pattern, albeit irregular, created.

Various Types of Pattern in ArtA drawing (c. 1895-1920) of the François Vase (c. 570-565 BCE); Unknown author Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns in Shapes and Forms ===
Shapes and forms are often utilized to create patterns and there are almost endless possibilities when it comes to how these can be arranged or sequenced. Shapes can be anything from squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, ovals, and more.

Forms can be anything from three-dimensional shapes like spheres or cubes, but also figurative forms. Examples of pattern in art that utilizes shape can be found in the artwork of Piet Mondrian, who was the pioneer of the art style called Neo-Plasticism, namely his Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) where he utilizes black outlines that then form squares and rectangles on the canvas with white in between and some colored areas.

Pattern in Artwork Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The composition appears almost as checkered patterns and the shapes are not all the same size thus creating irregular patterns. This was a common characteristic in Mondrian’s art, and we find his geometric and irregular patterning of shapes in numerous of his paintings. In one of Mondrian’s other paintings, Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943), we see more square and rectangular shapes with areas of color, including white in between.

However, this arrangement appears more irregular, which ironically creates a compositional unity due to the similarity in the patterning of shapes and colors.

Paintings With Art Patterns Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

An example where shapes are depicted as a more symmetrical pattern in artwork can be seen in the paintings by Mark Rothko, who was also a Color Field painter. His Untitled, Black on Gray (1969) depicts two joined rectangles, the top is black, and the bottom is gray. You might wonder how this has anything to do with a pattern, but it illustrates how shapes are repeated and placed in a symmetrical arrangement, even just two shapes.

In other words, there is more order to it and the differences are in the colors, which give it character, but also speak to a deeper meaning that Rothko intended, that being about “death”. The Symbolist painter Gustav Klimt is famous for his painting The Kiss (1907-1908), which depicts an assortment of shapes like rectangles, circles, and squares all arranged in patterns as decorative motifs for the subject matter. These are also evident in Klimt’s Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907), but it also has organic shapes like spirals and ovular eye shapes.

Types of Pattern in ArtLEFT: The Kiss (1907-1908) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons | RIGHT: Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Another artist worth mentioning who employed organic forms as patterns was William Morris, who was one of the pioneers of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England during the 1800s. He was a painter, textile artist and designer, poet, and writer, among many others. Morris was inspired by a Medieval art style and often created organic and natural designs that depicted beautiful decorative patterns.

For example, his wallpaper designs like the Larkspur Wallpaper (1874), Acanthus Wallpaper (1875), and Sunflower Wallpaper (1879); he reportedly created over 50 designs. Each design features floral and foliage-inspired motifs and appears natural in its repeated curvatures and curls. He is often quoted comparing patterns to a “fortress” and that “it is no stronger than its weakest point”.

Famous Art PatternsBlackthorn wallpaper (1892) by William Morris & Company; William Morris, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

From geometric shapes, fauna, and flora to figurative forms of famous pop stars, repeated en masse by Pop Artist Andy Warhol. The Marilyn Diptych (1962) is just one of many examples by Warhol of how he created patterns from pop culture. In this silkscreen painting, he depicted 50 iterations of Marilyn Monroe’s portrait all arranged in horizontal rows of five; the left section is in color and the right is in black and white.

However, there cannot be a mention of Andy Warhol without mentioning his famous Campbell’s Soup Cans (1962), which consists of 32 individual canvases with the image of a Campbell Soup can painted on it (all the cans are different flavors too). Warhol reportedly touched on mass media and the advertisement industry, of which repetition and replication are a large part.

=== Patterns in Lines ===
Bridget Riley from the Op Art movement became well-known for producing compositions that appeared like optical illusions through shapes, lines, and colors. For example, Riley’s oil on canvas Nataraja (1993) depicts bands of color, or as some describe it “stripes”, arranged in diagonal patterns, however, upon closer viewing, horizontal bands become evident and run from top to bottom of the canvas, thus also creating an optical effect.

Frank Stella’s artworks have been ascribed to the Minimalist art style as well as Hard-Edge painting. In his enamel on canvas painting The Marriage of Reason and Squalor, II (1959), which was part of his series of Black Paintings (1958-1960) the artist painted black strips or bands on the canvas with thin gaps in between, which is the canvas underneath that appear as white lines. The shape of the composition is described as an inverted “U” and the arrangement of the black and white lines creates a patterned effect. This composition is also more geometric and symmetrical, denoting an ordered arrangement of lines. Stella created several more from his series, also enamel on canvas, some include Jill (1959), which depicts lines in a diamond shape that starts small in the center and becomes bigger as it emanates outwards, and Zambezi (1959), which appears as a large “X” shape with open-ended triangular shapes moving outwards in each direction.

Another example of pattern in artwork with a focus on lines comes from Gene Davis, who was part of the Color Field Painting art style. He created artworks that depicted vertical lines in multi colors, for example, Hot Beat (1964), Red Witch (1966), and Dr. Peppercorn (1967).

=== Patterns in Space ===
Space as an element of art refers to the compositional space, which is described as the area that occurs “around” the main subject matter. Furthermore, space can be positive or negative, in other words, the positive space consists of the primary subject matter, or the area of focus in the composition, and negative space consists of the area around the focal point, which is sometimes “unused” but can be equally impactful in drawing attention.

Any pattern in artwork can be created through positive and negative space through the arrangement of an assortment of motifs, and some artists like M. C. Escher became famous for how he played with patterns and space, giving rise to numerous optical illusions known as his “tessellations”. Art Patterns Part of a tile tableau of Birds and Fishes by M. C. Escher from 1960 in the Dutch Tile Museum in Otterlo. The tableau was designed for his home at 59 Dirk Schäferstraat in Amsterdam; HenkvD, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Examples include Escher’s Day and Night (1937), which depicts an aerial view of a town and a flying flock of birds in the sky. The composition is split into two mirror images; however, the left side depicts the daytime with blackbirds, which is the positive space, and the right side, the nighttime, has white birds, which is the positive space. In Escher’s example of pattern in art, Bird Fish (1938), we see the patterned interplay between positive and negative space. Here there are rows of red/orange birds with white fish filling up the spaces around them, however, we can also say there are white fish with birds filling up the space around them – it all depends on how you look at it.

== Repetition, Repetition, Repetition ==
In this article, we explored patterns as one of the Principles of Art. The types of pattern in art can be anything from geometric and structured shapes or lines to flowy, curvy, and natural forms, all arranged and repeated to create various effects.

Patterns are part of a world of artful arrangements that can have hundreds of meanings, from serving as decorations, optical illusions, or merely art for art’s sake. However, patterns created by Andy Warhol, for example, touch on larger ideas of consumerism, and we could also go so far as to say that patterns create the means by which mass media can reproduce products or people. In other words, patterns allow for replication, one item placed next to the other, whether it is on a grocery shelf or art gallery wall. Patterns speak to the decorative as well as to the monotony of many.

While we have only outlined several prominent artists from all walks of life and art movements as examples of how patterns occur in art, we encourage you to look further, see between the lines, between the birds, around the splashes of paint, and swirls of brushstrokes and rows of images of Marilyn Monroe – patterns are everywhere, and as the adage goes, “repetition, repetition, repetition”.

== Frequently Asked Questions ==

'''What Are Patterns?'''

Pattern in art is one of the principles of art and are motifs (consisting of shapes, lines, and forms) that are repeated in arrangements, sequences, and groupings, whether ordered horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, or more irregular and random. Patterns can create a sense of rhythm or lead to a main focal point.

'''What Are the Types of Pattern in Art?'''

There are so-called man-made patterns and natural patterns, and they can be geometric or organic. Some patterns can consist of lines, curls, spirals, animal shapes, zigzags, dots, arabesques, circles, and squares, among many others.

'''What Are the Principles of Art?'''

The principles of art are so-called organizational principles, in other words, they determine how art elements (line, color, form, texture, space, shape, and value) will be applied in a visual composition. The art principles are namely, balance, harmony, unity, scale, proportion, emphasis, variety, pattern, repetition, movement, and rhythm.

= Golden Ratio =

== Da Vinci and the Divine Proportion in Art Composition ==

''July 7, 2014 by Gary Meisner''

Leonardo Da Vinci has long been associated with the golden ratio. This association was reinforced in popular culture in 2003 by Dan Brown’s best selling book “The Da Vinci Code.” The plot has pivotal clues involving the golden ratio and Fibonacci series. In 2006, the public awareness of the association grew when the book was turned into a movie starring veteran actor Tom Hanks. Da Vinci’s association with the golden ratio, known in his time as the Divine proportion, runs much longer and deeper.

=== Da Vinci’s illustrations appear in Pacioli’s book “The Divine Proportion” ===
Da Vinci created the illustrations for the book “De Divina Proportione” (The Divine Proportion) by Luca Pacioli. It was written in about 1497 and first published in 1509. Pacioli was a contemporary of Da Vinci’s, and the book contains dozens of beautiful illustrations of three-dimensional geometric solids and templates for script letters in calligraphy. The original manuscript can be viewed online at http://issuu.com/s.c.williams-library/docs/de_divina_proportione. As of this writing in 2014, no English translation is available.

In the book, Pacioli writes of mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in art and architecture. Some geometric solids, such as dodecahedrons and icosahedrons, have inherent golden ratios in their dimensions and spatial positions of their intersecting lines. Other examples of golden ratios in the illustrations include the one architectural illustration in the book and the one script letter (G) that is not divided horizontally at its midpoint.

[[File:1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d4/1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/63/2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/9/93/3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/22/4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|alt=|left]]

On the first page of De Divina Proportione, Pacioli states that his intent is to reveal to artists the secret of harmonic forms through the use of the Divine proportion, describing his writing as:

''A work necessary for all the clear-sighted and inquiring human minds, in which everyone who loves to study philosophy, perspective, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and other mathematical disciplines will find a very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching and will delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science.''

=== Golden ratios / Divine proportions appear in Renaissance art in paintings of religious importance ===
Da Vinci’s use of the Divine proportion is evident in some of his own works, even before his collaboration with Pacioli. The paintings I reviewed suggest that the use of the Divine proportion in paintings among Renaissance artists may have been more common in paintings of special religious significance.

It appears that Da Vinci applied Divine proportions in his rendition of “The Annunciation, painted in about 1472-1473. An exact determination is difficult with 100% certainty because various images available of this painting are cropped slightly differently. It appears to be the basis for the dimensions of the walls and entry way of the courtyard, as well other elements of the composition, as shown in the photos below. Other golden ratios can be found, but to avoid any perception that this is arbitrary those shown are based on very distinct features of the painting. Botticelli also used the golden ratio in several renditions he created of “The Annunciation” between 1485 and 1493. Michelangelo used it in “The Creation of Adam” in 1510.

[[File:1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios based on width of painting canvas, using Florence Museum image. Note alignment of vertical walls and courtyard entry.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d7/1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from left side to precise center of canvas, which aligns with the mountain peak. Note positioning of angle face and wings, as well as position of the one tree in the background that’s different from all the others.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/4/42/2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|frame|300 px|The Annunciation|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/f/f2/3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|frame|300 px|Variation on this image shows divine proportion position of the entry to the courtyard|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/5/5e/4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|frame|300 px|The ornamentation of the table is at the golden mean of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|frame|300 px|The peaks of the mountains in relation to the top of the canvas are in golden ratio proportion|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/ca/6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|center]]

= Animals in Painting =

== Leonardo da Vinci saw in animals the ‘image of the world’ ==

''April 12, 2019, Arielle Saiber, Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Bowdoin College''

About six months ago I stopped eating meat. I was teaching a graduate course at UCLA that investigated how Italian Renaissance writers conveyed their concepts about the human through writing about the nonhuman – plants, animals, objects, angels, demons, gods and God. As weeks passed, I found myself becoming more and more attuned to the nonhuman entities all around me, more aware of their vibrant lives. Cutting flowers for a short-lived bouquet seemed wrong; chewing on animal flesh became flat out impossible.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the authors we were studying in the course. Out of the thousands of pages comprising his 25 documented codices, known collectively as his “Notebooks,” we read passages describing the natural world and its inhabitants, and some of his philosophical maxims, fables and riddles. In a striking passage that introduces his “Treatise on Water,” he wrote:

''“By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is composed of earth, water, air, and fire, his body resembles that of the earth; and as man has in him bones — the supports and framework of his flesh —, the world has its rocks — the supports of the earth; as man has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which likewise rises and falls … ”''

Unlike many thinkers of his time who anthropomorphized the Earth, Leonardo terramorphized man. But it was not just man that Leonardo saw as a Platonic microcosmic-world-in-miniature. Animals, he wrote, are “the image of the world.” They reflect the Earth, just as we do.

[[File:Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings. Leonardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ef/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_animals_hold_their_own_against_human_beings.png|center]]

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[[Category: Leonardo da Vinci]]

Trends:Leonardo da Vinci Patterns

2023-06-08T12:58:11Z

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{{DISPLAYTITLE: Leonardo da Vinci Patterns}}
= Patterns in Art =
There are patterns almost everywhere you look, the world is filled with them, but what are patterns, and what makes them important in art? This is the topic we will explore in the research listed below.

== What Are Patterns? ==
Patterns have to do with repetition, arrangements, and sequences and can be seen in natural and urban environments. These beautiful patterns are found throughout the natural world, from atomic to the astronomical scale. A few of the patterns we see in nature are Symmetries (mirror & radial), Fractals (branching), Spirals, Flow, Foam, Waves, Tiling and even Cracks. But these could also be the mossy patches on tree bark, the row of windows on a skyscraper, the whorls of a seashell, to the swirls of paint on a Vincent van Gogh painting! However, patterns can also be in other disciplines like mathematics, engineering, architecture, literature, music, and different cultures from all over the world utilize patterns to decorate important objects like masks, textiles, sculptures, and even themselves through body art. What is common in the natural according and the created is that patterns are created through the arrangement of shapes, forms, or lines, which are sometimes known as the term “motifs”, and can be either deliberate or natural. In art, patterns can occur in sequential order or progression to create rhythm, movement, visual appeal, or emphasis.

== Types of Patterns ==
As mentioned above, the two main types of patterns occur naturally or artificially/deliberately, in other words as some sources describe: “natural” and “man-made”. But for both of them, these types of patterns can be arranged in symmetric, asymmetric, geometric, organic, regular, or irregular sequences. Furthermore, patterns can appear as tiles or tessellations, waves, spirals, crisscrosses, curls, loops, rows, lines, zigzags, florals, dots, blocks, and more! The repetitions can also come in varying shapes, styles, specific techniques, forms, shapes, sizes, and directions. For example, patterns can move outwards from a central area, they can move from left to right, up or down, and diagonally.

== The Principles of Art ==
It is important to note that “pattern” is one of the principles of art. Why, because a specific artist is recognizable by his/her/its “principles of design”. The most common principles include pattern, styles, specific techniques, repetition, rhythm, movement, variety, unity, harmony, balance, scale, proportion, and emphasis. The art principles create an organization for the elements of art and how they are utilized and applied to compose visual compositions.

'''Principles of Art and their Characteristics'''

Pattern = This is created through arrangements and sequences of signs or various “motifs” to add a variety of visual effects.

Repetition = This is related to patterns in art, and also determines how patterns are arranged.

Rhythm = This is when art elements are utilized and arranged in dynamic sequences that give the composition a feel of movement and directs the viewer’s eyes to a focal point or around the artwork.

Movement = This is also related to rhythm, but is more specific when the intention is to arrange art elements to create visual dynamism or convey a sense of speed.

Variety = This is about differences and avoiding monotony in a visual composition.

Unity = This refers to the whole composition and how all the art elements utilized relate to one another to appear visually holistic.

Harmony = This can apply to any of the art elements applied to be complementary to one another and thus visually “appealing”.

Balance = This can relate closely to, and not to be confused with, harmony and unity, but it is about the “weight” of all the art elements in a composition.

Scale = This is when two parts are placed next to the other to depict the visual differences in size.

Proportion = This is when parts of one object appear in different sizes.

Emphasis = This stresses certain significant aspects of a visual composition.

The elements of art, on the other hand, include seven main parts, namely, shape, form, line, texture, color, space, and value. These are also understood as the “building blocks” of a visual composition of a specific artist.

'''Art Elements and their Characteristics'''

Shape = There are several types of shapes, for example, circles or squares, and they are depicted on a flat surface.

Form = There are also several types of forms like spheres or cubes, but they have more depth and can also refer to a figurative form.

Line = This creates the outline of a form or structure and can create geometric shapes into more organic naturalistic forms.

Texture = This can be anything from smooth, coarse, shiny, prickly, or leathery in a visual composition, and can also be the actual paint on a canvas or the clay of sculpture.

Color = This is anything from primary, secondary, or tertiary colors, to saturation, temperature, or color schemes.

Space = This is what the “area” consists of in a visual composition or it can be the area around a sculptural object.

Value = This is best understood as visualizing a grayscale and how light or dark a hue appears.

== How Patterns Are Utilized in Art ==
Now that you understand what patterns are and their role as a principle of art, how can you utilize and apply pattern in art? Firstly, art patterns can be created with any of the art elements, and it all depends on the aim of the visual composition and what its purpose is. There are endless possibilities when it comes to creating art patterns. Below, we will look at how art patterns are created using art elements like color, shape, line, and so forth, providing examples from various artists throughout art history to illustrate how the types of pattern in art have been applied. It is also interesting to note that more than one art element can be utilized in a pattern, for example, the same shapes may be arranged in regular patterns, but be in irregular colors or vice versa. Different Types of Pattern in ArtA pattern by Paul Bürck, 1899; Paul Bürck, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns and Color ===
Colors can be utilized to create patterns, from monochromatic to multicolor. Furthermore, colors can be arranged in such a way that creates shapes like circles, squares, or rectangles. Colors can evoke different feelings and ideas, simply be decorative, or transcend the boundaries of the figurative. The Color Field Painting art movement within Abstract Expressionism is one example of how pattern in art is created by large areas of colors.
Color is often described as being the subject matter of the painting from this style, coupled with various shapes. Additionally, colors were also applied on “flat” surfaces that are usually also described as “large fields” of color. An example of how a pattern in artwork from the Color Field Painting art style is created includes Shoot (1964) by Kenneth Noland. Here, we see an inverted triangular shape consisting of four bands of color. Although there is an emphasis on shape here too, it works closely alongside color, and we see how colors equally create the geometric patterns.

=== Patterns in Texture ===
Texture in visual arts can either be implied/illusional or tactile, created by the physical medium itself like paint and the brushstrokes on a canvas. Brushstrokes can also create patterns on the canvas and become part of the composition. An example of how pattern in artwork is created through brushstrokes and texture can be found in the famous and loved The Starry Night (1889) painting by Vincent van Gogh.

The brushstrokes composing the sky, the landscape, and the looming cypress tree in the left foreground, all appear similar, creating a dynamic pattern. We can see the swirls of paint, created by Van Gogh’s utilization of brushstrokes, composing the sky, which gives it rhythm and movement. The brushstrokes move from one direction to the other and form circular arrangements around the moon and stars.

Example of Pattern in ArtThe Starry Night (1889) by Vincent van Gogh; Vincent van Gogh, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. These brushstroke lines are echoed in the sloping hills in the background, and further in the landscape below that shows houses and trees. The composition becomes harmonious because of the unity of patterns created from the brushstrokes.

Jackson Pollock from Abstract Expressionism is a famous example of how physical paint splattered and streaked onto a canvas can create patterns. He was known for his so-called “drip technique” and what is known as “Action Painting”. An example of pattern in art can be seen in Pollock’s Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) (1950) depicts drips of paint, which appear as streaks all intertwining, overlapping, and moving in every direction possible, however, the physical paint on the canvas creates a random and irregular patterned effect.

If we look at other modalities like sculpture, notably ceramics, patterns become ideal decorations. For example, we can look as far back as ancient Greek pottery, a vast world of its own depicting myriads of mythological narratives around the circumferences of vessels utilized for everyday activities. An example of this includes the François Vase (ca. 570 – 565 BCE), which was painted by the Athenian known as Kleitias and the potter was Ergotimos.

This vase was found by the archaeologist Alessandro François, after whom it was named. It depicts various mythological narratives, from gods to heroes, all arranged around the vase in what is known as “friezes”. Although the friezes depict different events occurring around the vase, there is still a pattern, albeit irregular, created.

Various Types of Pattern in ArtA drawing (c. 1895-1920) of the François Vase (c. 570-565 BCE); Unknown author Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns in Shapes and Forms ===
Shapes and forms are often utilized to create patterns and there are almost endless possibilities when it comes to how these can be arranged or sequenced. Shapes can be anything from squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, ovals, and more.

Forms can be anything from three-dimensional shapes like spheres or cubes, but also figurative forms. Examples of pattern in art that utilizes shape can be found in the artwork of Piet Mondrian, who was the pioneer of the art style called Neo-Plasticism, namely his Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) where he utilizes black outlines that then form squares and rectangles on the canvas with white in between and some colored areas.

Pattern in Artwork Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The composition appears almost as checkered patterns and the shapes are not all the same size thus creating irregular patterns. This was a common characteristic in Mondrian’s art, and we find his geometric and irregular patterning of shapes in numerous of his paintings. In one of Mondrian’s other paintings, Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943), we see more square and rectangular shapes with areas of color, including white in between.

However, this arrangement appears more irregular, which ironically creates a compositional unity due to the similarity in the patterning of shapes and colors.

Paintings With Art Patterns Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

An example where shapes are depicted as a more symmetrical pattern in artwork can be seen in the paintings by Mark Rothko, who was also a Color Field painter. His Untitled, Black on Gray (1969) depicts two joined rectangles, the top is black, and the bottom is gray. You might wonder how this has anything to do with a pattern, but it illustrates how shapes are repeated and placed in a symmetrical arrangement, even just two shapes.

In other words, there is more order to it and the differences are in the colors, which give it character, but also speak to a deeper meaning that Rothko intended, that being about “death”. The Symbolist painter Gustav Klimt is famous for his painting The Kiss (1907-1908), which depicts an assortment of shapes like rectangles, circles, and squares all arranged in patterns as decorative motifs for the subject matter. These are also evident in Klimt’s Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907), but it also has organic shapes like spirals and ovular eye shapes.

Types of Pattern in ArtLEFT: The Kiss (1907-1908) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons | RIGHT: Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Another artist worth mentioning who employed organic forms as patterns was William Morris, who was one of the pioneers of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England during the 1800s. He was a painter, textile artist and designer, poet, and writer, among many others. Morris was inspired by a Medieval art style and often created organic and natural designs that depicted beautiful decorative patterns.

For example, his wallpaper designs like the Larkspur Wallpaper (1874), Acanthus Wallpaper (1875), and Sunflower Wallpaper (1879); he reportedly created over 50 designs. Each design features floral and foliage-inspired motifs and appears natural in its repeated curvatures and curls. He is often quoted comparing patterns to a “fortress” and that “it is no stronger than its weakest point”.

Famous Art PatternsBlackthorn wallpaper (1892) by William Morris & Company; William Morris, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

From geometric shapes, fauna, and flora to figurative forms of famous pop stars, repeated en masse by Pop Artist Andy Warhol. The Marilyn Diptych (1962) is just one of many examples by Warhol of how he created patterns from pop culture. In this silkscreen painting, he depicted 50 iterations of Marilyn Monroe’s portrait all arranged in horizontal rows of five; the left section is in color and the right is in black and white.

However, there cannot be a mention of Andy Warhol without mentioning his famous Campbell’s Soup Cans (1962), which consists of 32 individual canvases with the image of a Campbell Soup can painted on it (all the cans are different flavors too). Warhol reportedly touched on mass media and the advertisement industry, of which repetition and replication are a large part.

=== Patterns in Lines ===
Bridget Riley from the Op Art movement became well-known for producing compositions that appeared like optical illusions through shapes, lines, and colors. For example, Riley’s oil on canvas Nataraja (1993) depicts bands of color, or as some describe it “stripes”, arranged in diagonal patterns, however, upon closer viewing, horizontal bands become evident and run from top to bottom of the canvas, thus also creating an optical effect.

Frank Stella’s artworks have been ascribed to the Minimalist art style as well as Hard-Edge painting. In his enamel on canvas painting The Marriage of Reason and Squalor, II (1959), which was part of his series of Black Paintings (1958-1960) the artist painted black strips or bands on the canvas with thin gaps in between, which is the canvas underneath that appear as white lines. The shape of the composition is described as an inverted “U” and the arrangement of the black and white lines creates a patterned effect. This composition is also more geometric and symmetrical, denoting an ordered arrangement of lines. Stella created several more from his series, also enamel on canvas, some include Jill (1959), which depicts lines in a diamond shape that starts small in the center and becomes bigger as it emanates outwards, and Zambezi (1959), which appears as a large “X” shape with open-ended triangular shapes moving outwards in each direction.

Another example of pattern in artwork with a focus on lines comes from Gene Davis, who was part of the Color Field Painting art style. He created artworks that depicted vertical lines in multi colors, for example, Hot Beat (1964), Red Witch (1966), and Dr. Peppercorn (1967).

=== Patterns in Space ===
Space as an element of art refers to the compositional space, which is described as the area that occurs “around” the main subject matter. Furthermore, space can be positive or negative, in other words, the positive space consists of the primary subject matter, or the area of focus in the composition, and negative space consists of the area around the focal point, which is sometimes “unused” but can be equally impactful in drawing attention.

Any pattern in artwork can be created through positive and negative space through the arrangement of an assortment of motifs, and some artists like M. C. Escher became famous for how he played with patterns and space, giving rise to numerous optical illusions known as his “tessellations”. Art Patterns Part of a tile tableau of Birds and Fishes by M. C. Escher from 1960 in the Dutch Tile Museum in Otterlo. The tableau was designed for his home at 59 Dirk Schäferstraat in Amsterdam; HenkvD, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Examples include Escher’s Day and Night (1937), which depicts an aerial view of a town and a flying flock of birds in the sky. The composition is split into two mirror images; however, the left side depicts the daytime with blackbirds, which is the positive space, and the right side, the nighttime, has white birds, which is the positive space. In Escher’s example of pattern in art, Bird Fish (1938), we see the patterned interplay between positive and negative space. Here there are rows of red/orange birds with white fish filling up the spaces around them, however, we can also say there are white fish with birds filling up the space around them – it all depends on how you look at it.

== Repetition, Repetition, Repetition ==
In this article, we explored patterns as one of the Principles of Art. The types of pattern in art can be anything from geometric and structured shapes or lines to flowy, curvy, and natural forms, all arranged and repeated to create various effects.

Patterns are part of a world of artful arrangements that can have hundreds of meanings, from serving as decorations, optical illusions, or merely art for art’s sake. However, patterns created by Andy Warhol, for example, touch on larger ideas of consumerism, and we could also go so far as to say that patterns create the means by which mass media can reproduce products or people. In other words, patterns allow for replication, one item placed next to the other, whether it is on a grocery shelf or art gallery wall. Patterns speak to the decorative as well as to the monotony of many.

While we have only outlined several prominent artists from all walks of life and art movements as examples of how patterns occur in art, we encourage you to look further, see between the lines, between the birds, around the splashes of paint, and swirls of brushstrokes and rows of images of Marilyn Monroe – patterns are everywhere, and as the adage goes, “repetition, repetition, repetition”.

== Frequently Asked Questions ==
'''What Are Patterns?'''
Pattern in art is one of the principles of art and are motifs (consisting of shapes, lines, and forms) that are repeated in arrangements, sequences, and groupings, whether ordered horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, or more irregular and random. Patterns can create a sense of rhythm or lead to a main focal point.

'''What Are the Types of Pattern in Art?'''
There are so-called man-made patterns and natural patterns, and they can be geometric or organic. Some patterns can consist of lines, curls, spirals, animal shapes, zigzags, dots, arabesques, circles, and squares, among many others.

'''What Are the Principles of Art?'''
The principles of art are so-called organizational principles, in other words, they determine how art elements (line, color, form, texture, space, shape, and value) will be applied in a visual composition. The art principles are namely, balance, harmony, unity, scale, proportion, emphasis, variety, pattern, repetition, movement, and rhythm.

= Golden Ratio =

== Da Vinci and the Divine Proportion in Art Composition ==

''July 7, 2014 by Gary Meisner''

Leonardo Da Vinci has long been associated with the golden ratio. This association was reinforced in popular culture in 2003 by Dan Brown’s best selling book “The Da Vinci Code.” The plot has pivotal clues involving the golden ratio and Fibonacci series. In 2006, the public awareness of the association grew when the book was turned into a movie starring veteran actor Tom Hanks. Da Vinci’s association with the golden ratio, known in his time as the Divine proportion, runs much longer and deeper.

=== Da Vinci’s illustrations appear in Pacioli’s book “The Divine Proportion” ===
Da Vinci created the illustrations for the book “De Divina Proportione” (The Divine Proportion) by Luca Pacioli. It was written in about 1497 and first published in 1509. Pacioli was a contemporary of Da Vinci’s, and the book contains dozens of beautiful illustrations of three-dimensional geometric solids and templates for script letters in calligraphy. The original manuscript can be viewed online at http://issuu.com/s.c.williams-library/docs/de_divina_proportione. As of this writing in 2014, no English translation is available.

In the book, Pacioli writes of mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in art and architecture. Some geometric solids, such as dodecahedrons and icosahedrons, have inherent golden ratios in their dimensions and spatial positions of their intersecting lines. Other examples of golden ratios in the illustrations include the one architectural illustration in the book and the one script letter (G) that is not divided horizontally at its midpoint.

[[File:1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d4/1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/63/2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/9/93/3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/22/4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|alt=|left]]

On the first page of De Divina Proportione, Pacioli states that his intent is to reveal to artists the secret of harmonic forms through the use of the Divine proportion, describing his writing as:

''A work necessary for all the clear-sighted and inquiring human minds, in which everyone who loves to study philosophy, perspective, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and other mathematical disciplines will find a very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching and will delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science.''

=== Golden ratios / Divine proportions appear in Renaissance art in paintings of religious importance ===
Da Vinci’s use of the Divine proportion is evident in some of his own works, even before his collaboration with Pacioli. The paintings I reviewed suggest that the use of the Divine proportion in paintings among Renaissance artists may have been more common in paintings of special religious significance.

It appears that Da Vinci applied Divine proportions in his rendition of “The Annunciation, painted in about 1472-1473. An exact determination is difficult with 100% certainty because various images available of this painting are cropped slightly differently. It appears to be the basis for the dimensions of the walls and entry way of the courtyard, as well other elements of the composition, as shown in the photos below. Other golden ratios can be found, but to avoid any perception that this is arbitrary those shown are based on very distinct features of the painting. Botticelli also used the golden ratio in several renditions he created of “The Annunciation” between 1485 and 1493. Michelangelo used it in “The Creation of Adam” in 1510.

[[File:1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios based on width of painting canvas, using Florence Museum image. Note alignment of vertical walls and courtyard entry.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d7/1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from left side to precise center of canvas, which aligns with the mountain peak. Note positioning of angle face and wings, as well as position of the one tree in the background that’s different from all the others.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/4/42/2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|frame|300 px|The Annunciation|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/f/f2/3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|frame|300 px|Variation on this image shows divine proportion position of the entry to the courtyard|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/5/5e/4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|frame|300 px|The ornamentation of the table is at the golden mean of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|frame|300 px|The peaks of the mountains in relation to the top of the canvas are in golden ratio proportion|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/ca/6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|center]]

= Animals in Painting =

== Leonardo da Vinci saw in animals the ‘image of the world’ ==

''April 12, 2019, Arielle Saiber, Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Bowdoin College''

About six months ago I stopped eating meat. I was teaching a graduate course at UCLA that investigated how Italian Renaissance writers conveyed their concepts about the human through writing about the nonhuman – plants, animals, objects, angels, demons, gods and God. As weeks passed, I found myself becoming more and more attuned to the nonhuman entities all around me, more aware of their vibrant lives. Cutting flowers for a short-lived bouquet seemed wrong; chewing on animal flesh became flat out impossible.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the authors we were studying in the course. Out of the thousands of pages comprising his 25 documented codices, known collectively as his “Notebooks,” we read passages describing the natural world and its inhabitants, and some of his philosophical maxims, fables and riddles. In a striking passage that introduces his “Treatise on Water,” he wrote:

''“By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is composed of earth, water, air, and fire, his body resembles that of the earth; and as man has in him bones — the supports and framework of his flesh —, the world has its rocks — the supports of the earth; as man has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which likewise rises and falls … ”''

Unlike many thinkers of his time who anthropomorphized the Earth, Leonardo terramorphized man. But it was not just man that Leonardo saw as a Platonic microcosmic-world-in-miniature. Animals, he wrote, are “the image of the world.” They reflect the Earth, just as we do.

[[File:Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings. Leonardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ef/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_animals_hold_their_own_against_human_beings.png|center]]

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[[Category: Leonardo da Vinci]]

Trends:Leonardo da Vinci Patterns

2023-06-08T12:56:03Z

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{{DISPLAYTITLE: Leonardo da Vinci Patterns}}
= Patterns in Art =
There are patterns almost everywhere you look, the world is filled with them, but what are patterns, and what makes them important in art? This is the topic we will explore in the research listed below.

== What Are Patterns? ==
Patterns have to do with repetition, arrangements, and sequences and can be seen in natural and urban environments. These beautiful patterns are found throughout the natural world, from atomic to the astronomical scale. A few of the patterns we see in nature are Symmetries (mirror & radial), Fractals (branching), Spirals, Flow, Foam, Waves, Tiling and even Cracks. But these could also be the mossy patches on tree bark, the row of windows on a skyscraper, the whorls of a seashell, to the swirls of paint on a Vincent van Gogh painting! However, patterns can also be in other disciplines like mathematics, engineering, architecture, literature, music, and different cultures from all over the world utilize patterns to decorate important objects like masks, textiles, sculptures, and even themselves through body art. What is common in the natural according and the created is that patterns are created through the arrangement of shapes, forms, or lines, which are sometimes known as the term “motifs”, and can be either deliberate or natural. In art, patterns can occur in sequential order or progression to create rhythm, movement, visual appeal, or emphasis.

== Types of Patterns ==
As mentioned above, the two main types of patterns occur naturally or artificially/deliberately, in other words as some sources describe: “natural” and “man-made”. But for both of them, these types of patterns can be arranged in symmetric, asymmetric, geometric, organic, regular, or irregular sequences. Furthermore, patterns can appear as tiles or tessellations, waves, spirals, crisscrosses, curls, loops, rows, lines, zigzags, florals, dots, blocks, and more! The repetitions can also come in varying shapes, styles, specific techniques, forms, shapes, sizes, and directions. For example, patterns can move outwards from a central area, they can move from left to right, up or down, and diagonally.

== The Principles of Art ==
It is important to note that “pattern” is one of the principles of art. Why, because a specific artist is recognizable by his/her/its “principles of design”. The most common principles include pattern, styles, specific techniques, repetition, rhythm, movement, variety, unity, harmony, balance, scale, proportion, and emphasis. The art principles create an organization for the elements of art and how they are utilized and applied to compose visual compositions.

'''Principles of Art and their Characteristics'''

Pattern = This is created through arrangements and sequences of signs or various “motifs” to add a variety of visual effects.

Repetition = This is related to patterns in art, and also determines how patterns are arranged.

Rhythm = This is when art elements are utilized and arranged in dynamic sequences that give the composition a feel of movement and directs the viewer’s eyes to a focal point or around the artwork.

Movement = This is also related to rhythm, but is more specific when the intention is to arrange art elements to create visual dynamism or convey a sense of speed.

Variety = This is about differences and avoiding monotony in a visual composition.

Unity = This refers to the whole composition and how all the art elements utilized relate to one another to appear visually holistic.

Harmony = This can apply to any of the art elements applied to be complementary to one another and thus visually “appealing”.

Balance = This can relate closely to, and not to be confused with, harmony and unity, but it is about the “weight” of all the art elements in a composition.

Scale = This is when two parts are placed next to the other to depict the visual differences in size.

Proportion = This is when parts of one object appear in different sizes.

Emphasis = This stresses certain significant aspects of a visual composition.

The elements of art, on the other hand, include seven main parts, namely, shape, form, line, texture, color, space, and value. These are also understood as the “building blocks” of a visual composition of a specific artist.

'''Art Elements and their Characteristics'''

Shape = There are several types of shapes, for example, circles or squares, and they are depicted on a flat surface.

Form = There are also several types of forms like spheres or cubes, but they have more depth and can also refer to a figurative form.

Line = This creates the outline of a form or structure and can create geometric shapes into more organic naturalistic forms.

Texture = This can be anything from smooth, coarse, shiny, prickly, or leathery in a visual composition, and can also be the actual paint on a canvas or the clay of sculpture.

Color = This is anything from primary, secondary, or tertiary colors, to saturation, temperature, or color schemes.

Space = This is what the “area” consists of in a visual composition or it can be the area around a sculptural object.

Value = This is best understood as visualizing a grayscale and how light or dark a hue appears.

== How Patterns Are Utilized in Art ==
Now that you understand what patterns are and their role as a principle of art, how can you utilize and apply pattern in art? Firstly, art patterns can be created with any of the art elements, and it all depends on the aim of the visual composition and what its purpose is. There are endless possibilities when it comes to creating art patterns. Below, we will look at how art patterns are created using art elements like color, shape, line, and so forth, providing examples from various artists throughout art history to illustrate how the types of pattern in art have been applied. It is also interesting to note that more than one art element can be utilized in a pattern, for example, the same shapes may be arranged in regular patterns, but be in irregular colors or vice versa. Different Types of Pattern in ArtA pattern by Paul Bürck, 1899; Paul Bürck, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns and Color ===
Colors can be utilized to create patterns, from monochromatic to multicolor. Furthermore, colors can be arranged in such a way that creates shapes like circles, squares, or rectangles. Colors can evoke different feelings and ideas, simply be decorative, or transcend the boundaries of the figurative. The Color Field Painting art movement within Abstract Expressionism is one example of how pattern in art is created by large areas of colors.
Color is often described as being the subject matter of the painting from this style, coupled with various shapes. Additionally, colors were also applied on “flat” surfaces that are usually also described as “large fields” of color. An example of how a pattern in artwork from the Color Field Painting art style is created includes Shoot (1964) by Kenneth Noland. Here, we see an inverted triangular shape consisting of four bands of color. Although there is an emphasis on shape here too, it works closely alongside color, and we see how colors equally create the geometric patterns.

=== Patterns in Texture ===
Texture in visual arts can either be implied/illusional or tactile, created by the physical medium itself like paint and the brushstrokes on a canvas. Brushstrokes can also create patterns on the canvas and become part of the composition. An example of how pattern in artwork is created through brushstrokes and texture can be found in the famous and loved The Starry Night (1889) painting by Vincent van Gogh.

The brushstrokes composing the sky, the landscape, and the looming cypress tree in the left foreground, all appear similar, creating a dynamic pattern. We can see the swirls of paint, created by Van Gogh’s utilization of brushstrokes, composing the sky, which gives it rhythm and movement. The brushstrokes move from one direction to the other and form circular arrangements around the moon and stars.

Example of Pattern in ArtThe Starry Night (1889) by Vincent van Gogh; Vincent van Gogh, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. These brushstroke lines are echoed in the sloping hills in the background, and further in the landscape below that shows houses and trees. The composition becomes harmonious because of the unity of patterns created from the brushstrokes.

Jackson Pollock from Abstract Expressionism is a famous example of how physical paint splattered and streaked onto a canvas can create patterns. He was known for his so-called “drip technique” and what is known as “Action Painting”. An example of pattern in art can be seen in Pollock’s Autumn Rhythm (Number 30) (1950) depicts drips of paint, which appear as streaks all intertwining, overlapping, and moving in every direction possible, however, the physical paint on the canvas creates a random and irregular patterned effect.

If we look at other modalities like sculpture, notably ceramics, patterns become ideal decorations. For example, we can look as far back as ancient Greek pottery, a vast world of its own depicting myriads of mythological narratives around the circumferences of vessels utilized for everyday activities. An example of this includes the François Vase (ca. 570 – 565 BCE), which was painted by the Athenian known as Kleitias and the potter was Ergotimos.

This vase was found by the archaeologist Alessandro François, after whom it was named. It depicts various mythological narratives, from gods to heroes, all arranged around the vase in what is known as “friezes”. Although the friezes depict different events occurring around the vase, there is still a pattern, albeit irregular, created.

Various Types of Pattern in ArtA drawing (c. 1895-1920) of the François Vase (c. 570-565 BCE); Unknown author Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

=== Patterns in Shapes and Forms ===
Shapes and forms are often utilized to create patterns and there are almost endless possibilities when it comes to how these can be arranged or sequenced. Shapes can be anything from squares, rectangles, circles, triangles, ovals, and more.

Forms can be anything from three-dimensional shapes like spheres or cubes, but also figurative forms. Examples of pattern in art that utilizes shape can be found in the artwork of Piet Mondrian, who was the pioneer of the art style called Neo-Plasticism, namely his Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) where he utilizes black outlines that then form squares and rectangles on the canvas with white in between and some colored areas.

Pattern in Artwork Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (1930) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

The composition appears almost as checkered patterns and the shapes are not all the same size thus creating irregular patterns. This was a common characteristic in Mondrian’s art, and we find his geometric and irregular patterning of shapes in numerous of his paintings. In one of Mondrian’s other paintings, Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943), we see more square and rectangular shapes with areas of color, including white in between.

However, this arrangement appears more irregular, which ironically creates a compositional unity due to the similarity in the patterning of shapes and colors.

Paintings With Art Patterns Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942-1943) by Piet Mondrian; Piet Mondrian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

An example where shapes are depicted as a more symmetrical pattern in artwork can be seen in the paintings by Mark Rothko, who was also a Color Field painter. His Untitled, Black on Gray (1969) depicts two joined rectangles, the top is black, and the bottom is gray. You might wonder how this has anything to do with a pattern, but it illustrates how shapes are repeated and placed in a symmetrical arrangement, even just two shapes.

In other words, there is more order to it and the differences are in the colors, which give it character, but also speak to a deeper meaning that Rothko intended, that being about “death”. The Symbolist painter Gustav Klimt is famous for his painting The Kiss (1907-1908), which depicts an assortment of shapes like rectangles, circles, and squares all arranged in patterns as decorative motifs for the subject matter. These are also evident in Klimt’s Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907), but it also has organic shapes like spirals and ovular eye shapes.

Types of Pattern in ArtLEFT: The Kiss (1907-1908) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons | RIGHT: Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I (1907) by Gustav Klimt; Gustav Klimt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Another artist worth mentioning who employed organic forms as patterns was William Morris, who was one of the pioneers of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England during the 1800s. He was a painter, textile artist and designer, poet, and writer, among many others. Morris was inspired by a Medieval art style and often created organic and natural designs that depicted beautiful decorative patterns.

For example, his wallpaper designs like the Larkspur Wallpaper (1874), Acanthus Wallpaper (1875), and Sunflower Wallpaper (1879); he reportedly created over 50 designs. Each design features floral and foliage-inspired motifs and appears natural in its repeated curvatures and curls. He is often quoted comparing patterns to a “fortress” and that “it is no stronger than its weakest point”.

Famous Art PatternsBlackthorn wallpaper (1892) by William Morris & Company; William Morris, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons.

From geometric shapes, fauna, and flora to figurative forms of famous pop stars, repeated en masse by Pop Artist Andy Warhol. The Marilyn Diptych (1962) is just one of many examples by Warhol of how he created patterns from pop culture. In this silkscreen painting, he depicted 50 iterations of Marilyn Monroe’s portrait all arranged in horizontal rows of five; the left section is in color and the right is in black and white.

However, there cannot be a mention of Andy Warhol without mentioning his famous Campbell’s Soup Cans (1962), which consists of 32 individual canvases with the image of a Campbell Soup can painted on it (all the cans are different flavors too). Warhol reportedly touched on mass media and the advertisement industry, of which repetition and replication are a large part.

=== Patterns in Lines ===
Bridget Riley from the Op Art movement became well-known for producing compositions that appeared like optical illusions through shapes, lines, and colors. For example, Riley’s oil on canvas Nataraja (1993) depicts bands of color, or as some describe it “stripes”, arranged in diagonal patterns, however, upon closer viewing, horizontal bands become evident and run from top to bottom of the canvas, thus also creating an optical effect.

Frank Stella’s artworks have been ascribed to the Minimalist art style as well as Hard-Edge painting. In his enamel on canvas painting The Marriage of Reason and Squalor, II (1959), which was part of his series of Black Paintings (1958-1960) the artist painted black strips or bands on the canvas with thin gaps in between, which is the canvas underneath that appear as white lines. The shape of the composition is described as an inverted “U” and the arrangement of the black and white lines creates a patterned effect. This composition is also more geometric and symmetrical, denoting an ordered arrangement of lines. Stella created several more from his series, also enamel on canvas, some include Jill (1959), which depicts lines in a diamond shape that starts small in the center and becomes bigger as it emanates outwards, and Zambezi (1959), which appears as a large “X” shape with open-ended triangular shapes moving outwards in each direction.

Another example of pattern in artwork with a focus on lines comes from Gene Davis, who was part of the Color Field Painting art style. He created artworks that depicted vertical lines in multi colors, for example, Hot Beat (1964), Red Witch (1966), and Dr. Peppercorn (1967).

=== Patterns in Space ===
Space as an element of art refers to the compositional space, which is described as the area that occurs “around” the main subject matter. Furthermore, space can be positive or negative, in other words, the positive space consists of the primary subject matter, or the area of focus in the composition, and negative space consists of the area around the focal point, which is sometimes “unused” but can be equally impactful in drawing attention.

Any pattern in artwork can be created through positive and negative space through the arrangement of an assortment of motifs, and some artists like M. C. Escher became famous for how he played with patterns and space, giving rise to numerous optical illusions known as his “tessellations”. Art Patterns Part of a tile tableau of Birds and Fishes by M. C. Escher from 1960 in the Dutch Tile Museum in Otterlo. The tableau was designed for his home at 59 Dirk Schäferstraat in Amsterdam; HenkvD, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Examples include Escher’s Day and Night (1937), which depicts an aerial view of a town and a flying flock of birds in the sky. The composition is split into two mirror images; however, the left side depicts the daytime with blackbirds, which is the positive space, and the right side, the nighttime, has white birds, which is the positive space. In Escher’s example of pattern in art, Bird Fish (1938), we see the patterned interplay between positive and negative space. Here there are rows of red/orange birds with white fish filling up the spaces around them, however, we can also say there are white fish with birds filling up the space around them – it all depends on how you look at it.

== Repetition, Repetition, Repetition ==
In this article, we explored patterns as one of the Principles of Art. The types of pattern in art can be anything from geometric and structured shapes or lines to flowy, curvy, and natural forms, all arranged and repeated to create various effects.

Patterns are part of a world of artful arrangements that can have hundreds of meanings, from serving as decorations, optical illusions, or merely art for art’s sake. However, patterns created by Andy Warhol, for example, touch on larger ideas of consumerism, and we could also go so far as to say that patterns create the means by which mass media can reproduce products or people. In other words, patterns allow for replication, one item placed next to the other, whether it is on a grocery shelf or art gallery wall. Patterns speak to the decorative as well as to the monotony of many.

While we have only outlined several prominent artists from all walks of life and art movements as examples of how patterns occur in art, we encourage you to look further, see between the lines, between the birds, around the splashes of paint, and swirls of brushstrokes and rows of images of Marilyn Monroe – patterns are everywhere, and as the adage goes, “repetition, repetition, repetition”.

== Frequently Asked Questions ==
'''What Are Patterns?'''
Pattern in art is one of the principles of art and are motifs (consisting of shapes, lines, and forms) that are repeated in arrangements, sequences, and groupings, whether ordered horizontally, vertically, or diagonally, or more irregular and random. Patterns can create a sense of rhythm or lead to a main focal point.

'''What Are the Types of Pattern in Art?'''
There are so-called man-made patterns and natural patterns, and they can be geometric or organic. Some patterns can consist of lines, curls, spirals, animal shapes, zigzags, dots, arabesques, circles, and squares, among many others.

'''What Are the Principles of Art?'''
The principles of art are so-called organizational principles, in other words, they determine how art elements (line, color, form, texture, space, shape, and value) will be applied in a visual composition. The art principles are namely, balance, harmony, unity, scale, proportion, emphasis, variety, pattern, repetition, movement, and rhythm.

= Golden Ratio =

== Da Vinci and the Divine Proportion in Art Composition ==

''July 7, 2014 by Gary Meisner''

Leonardo Da Vinci has long been associated with the golden ratio. This association was reinforced in popular culture in 2003 by Dan Brown’s best selling book “The Da Vinci Code.” The plot has pivotal clues involving the golden ratio and Fibonacci series. In 2006, the public awareness of the association grew when the book was turned into a movie starring veteran actor Tom Hanks. Da Vinci’s association with the golden ratio, known in his time as the Divine proportion, runs much longer and deeper.

=== Da Vinci’s illustrations appear in Pacioli’s book “The Divine Proportion” ===
Da Vinci created the illustrations for the book “De Divina Proportione” (The Divine Proportion) by Luca Pacioli. It was written in about 1497 and first published in 1509. Pacioli was a contemporary of Da Vinci’s, and the book contains dozens of beautiful illustrations of three-dimensional geometric solids and templates for script letters in calligraphy. The original manuscript can be viewed online at http://issuu.com/s.c.williams-library/docs/de_divina_proportione. As of this writing in 2014, no English translation is available.

In the book, Pacioli writes of mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in art and architecture. Some geometric solids, such as dodecahedrons and icosahedrons, have inherent golden ratios in their dimensions and spatial positions of their intersecting lines. Other examples of golden ratios in the illustrations include the one architectural illustration in the book and the one script letter (G) that is not divided horizontally at its midpoint.

[[File:1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d4/1-de-divina-proportione-introduction-page.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/6/63/2-de-divina-proportione-3D-geometric-solid-illustrations.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/9/93/3-de-divina-proportione-G-letter.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/2/22/4-de-divina-proportione-architecture-A1.jpg|alt=|left]]

[[File:5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|300 px|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-de-divina-proportione-architecture-B.jpg|alt=|left]]

On the first page of De Divina Proportione, Pacioli states that his intent is to reveal to artists the secret of harmonic forms through the use of the Divine proportion, describing his writing as:

''A work necessary for all the clear-sighted and inquiring human minds, in which everyone who loves to study philosophy, perspective, painting, sculpture, architecture, music and other mathematical disciplines will find a very delicate, subtle and admirable teaching and will delight in diverse questions touching on a very secret science.''

=== Golden ratios / Divine proportions appear in Renaissance art in paintings of religious importance ===
Da Vinci’s use of the Divine proportion is evident in some of his own works, even before his collaboration with Pacioli. The paintings I reviewed suggest that the use of the Divine proportion in paintings among Renaissance artists may have been more common in paintings of special religious significance.

It appears that Da Vinci applied Divine proportions in his rendition of “The Annunciation, painted in about 1472-1473. An exact determination is difficult with 100% certainty because various images available of this painting are cropped slightly differently. It appears to be the basis for the dimensions of the walls and entry way of the courtyard, as well other elements of the composition, as shown in the photos below. Other golden ratios can be found, but to avoid any perception that this is arbitrary those shown are based on very distinct features of the painting. Botticelli also used the golden ratio in several renditions he created of “The Annunciation” between 1485 and 1493. Michelangelo used it in “The Creation of Adam” in 1510.

[[File:1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios based on width of painting canvas, using Florence Museum image. Note alignment of vertical walls and courtyard entry.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/d/d7/1-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Right.jpg|center]]

[[File:2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|frame|300 px|Golden ratios from left side to precise center of canvas, which aligns with the mountain peak. Note positioning of angle face and wings, as well as position of the one tree in the background that’s different from all the others.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/4/42/2-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Left-Center.jpg|center]]

[[File:3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|frame|300 px|The Annunciation|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/f/f2/3-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-divine-proportion.jpg|center]]

[[File:4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|frame|300 px|Variation on this image shows divine proportion position of the entry to the courtyard|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/5/5e/4-Leonardo-da-Vincis-The-Annunciation-golden-ratio-entry.jpg|center]]

[[File:5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|frame|300 px|The ornamentation of the table is at the golden mean of its width|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/0/06/5-da-vinci-the-annunciation-table.jpg|center]]

[[File:6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|frame|300 px|The peaks of the mountains in relation to the top of the canvas are in golden ratio proportion|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/c/ca/6-Leonardo-da-Vinci-The-Annunciation-Uffizi-Landscape-Detail.jpg|center]]

= Animals in Painting =

== Leonardo da Vinci saw in animals the ‘image of the world’ ==

''April 12, 2019, Arielle Saiber, Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Bowdoin College''

About six months ago I stopped eating meat. I was teaching a graduate course at UCLA that investigated how Italian Renaissance writers conveyed their concepts about the human through writing about the nonhuman – plants, animals, objects, angels, demons, gods and God. As weeks passed, I found myself becoming more and more attuned to the nonhuman entities all around me, more aware of their vibrant lives. Cutting flowers for a short-lived bouquet seemed wrong; chewing on animal flesh became flat out impossible.

Leonardo da Vinci was one of the authors we were studying in the course. Out of the thousands of pages comprising his 25 documented codices, known collectively as his “Notebooks,” we read passages describing the natural world and its inhabitants, and some of his philosophical maxims, fables and riddles. In a striking passage that introduces his “Treatise on Water,” he wrote:

''“By the ancients man has been called the world in miniature; and certainly this name is well bestowed, because, inasmuch as man is composed of earth, water, air, and fire, his body resembles that of the earth; and as man has in him bones — the supports and framework of his flesh —, the world has its rocks — the supports of the earth; as man has in him a pool of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in breathing, so the body of the earth has its ocean tide which likewise rises and falls … ”''

Unlike many thinkers of his time who anthropomorphized the Earth, Leonardo terramorphized man. But it was not just man that Leonardo saw as a Platonic microcosmic-world-in-miniature. Animals, he wrote, are “the image of the world.” They reflect the Earth, just as we do.

[[File:Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings.png|frame|300 px|Leonardo’s animals hold their own against human beings. Leonardo da Vinci.|link=https://www.enterpriseplus.tools/images/e/ef/Leonardo%E2%80%99s_animals_hold_their_own_against_human_beings.png|center]]

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